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PubMed2006

Early skeletal development in Talpa europaea, the common European mole.

An ontogenetic series of 22 cleared and double-stained prenatal specimens was used to study the sequence of ossification of selected postcranial skeletal elements of Talpa europaea. Results were compared with nine other therian mammals, with Alligator, Chelydra, and Lacerta as outgroups. Using the event-pairing method, shifts in the onset of ossification in T. europaea, Sus, and Homo were identified. In T. europaea, the ossification of the cervical vertebrae starts before the metatarsals. In Homo and Sus, the tarsals ossify before the pubic bone. These shifts in the sequence of ossification are unique among the mammals examined, whereas many other changes, characterising monophyletic groups and/or evolving convergently, were also identified. Particular attention was given to some peculiar calcified elements of the hand in T. europaea, which were identified as accessory ;sesamoid bones', and do not display a chondrified precursor. They start to calcify before all others of the hand and later fuse. They appear in all fingers and function as reinforcement for the distal phalanges, most likely as an adaptation for burrowing. The development of the sesamoid bones was examined using histological sections and macerated adults.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2002

Fetal development of the first metatarsophalangeal joint complex with special reference to the intersesamoidal ridge.

In most individuals, plantar to the first metatarsal head, a more or less well developed crest separates the two furrows for the medial and the lateral sesamoid bones. In some instances, the absence of this crest has been observed in a previous study. This observation may be related to a pathological and/or an ontogenetic development. For the present examination, we have assumed the ontogenetic hypothesis. Twenty-two feet were examined at different developmental stages from week 12 to 38. The feet were prepared for examination using methods of plastination-histology. Sesamoids have already developed from the joint capsule by the first stage (12th week). Attachment bundles of collagenous fibers have deeply penetrated the cartilage of the sesamoids on their capsular side. Only some inner fibers of the muscular tendons join the sesamoids on their plantar side. The intersesamoid ligament is blended into the synovial tendon sheath of the flexor hallucis longus. The plantar crest has already developed in the fetal cartilage of the first metatarsal head as a strong ridge. With further growth, the surfaces become inwardly tapered on both sides of the ridge through the sesamoid bones, so that in the end the ridge results in a more or less clear crest. If the tapering of the furrows for the sesamoid bones proceeds too briskly or too far, this can result in an absence of the plantar crest. If the absence of this crest stands in relation to the formation of a Hallux valgus, this result would be a first indication of an developmentally based cause for this wide-spread disease of the foot.

Embryonic and Fetal Development↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Arthroscopic removal of apical and abaxial sesamoid fracture fragments in five horses.

Five horses with apical and abaxial fractures of the proximal sesamoid bones were treated arthroscopically. Ipsilateral and contralateral triangulation were used to remove abaxial fragments; apical fragments were removed by ipsilateral triangulation. Excellent visibility of the fracture fragments was obtained with each method. Dissection and removal of fragments was accomplished with standard arthroscopic instruments, tendon-splitting knives, and curved scissors. Excellent functional and cosmetic results were achieved in all cases.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Mechanobiology and joint conformity regulate endochondral ossification of sesamoids.

Sesamoid bones form by the endochondral ossification of sesamoid cartilages. This ossification process is thought to be similar to that responsible for the formation of secondary ossific nuclei in long-bone epiphyses. Sesamoids ossify much later in development than do epiphyses, however, and bone formation within sesamoids often begins by way of multiple ossific nuclei. Endochondral growth and ossification in the formation of secondary ossific nuclei have previously been correlated with distributions of the octahedral shear and hydrostatic stresses generated in vivo within cartilage anlagen. In this study, we used two-dimensional finite element analysis to predict the distributions of octahedral shear and hydrostatic stresses in an idealized model of a sesamoid cartilage subjected to in vivo loading. We examined the influence of sesamoid joint conformity. The distribution of an osteogenic stimulus was calculated with an approach similar to that used to predict epiphyseal ossification. The results suggest that, compared with conforming joints, nonconformity between the sesamoid cartilage and its articulating surface, which arises during early development, produces higher contact pressures within the sesamoid and leads to a thicker articular cartilage layer. For a nonconforming joint surface, the results suggest that ossification is favored anywhere within a broad internal region of the sesamoid, whereas a layer at the articular surface will remain cartilaginous. These findings highlight the subtle differences between ossification processes in epiphyses and sesamoids, indicating that the mechanical stress environment in sesamoids produces a diffuse stimulus leading to the onset of ossification and that the degree of joint nonconformity may influence the thickness of the articular cartilage layer.

Cartilage↗
PubMed1995

Interleukin-1 reversibly inhibits the synthesis of biglycan and decorin in intact articular cartilage in culture.

OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of interleukin-1 (IL-1) on the synthesis of proteoglycans biglycan (DSPG-I) and decorin (DSPG-II) in intact bovine articular cartilage. METHODS: Cartilage bearing sesamoid bones from the metacarpophalangeal joint were cultured with 10 ng/ml IL-1 for 2 days and labelled with [35S] sulfate. One sesamoid bone from each animal had been labelled ex vivo. The remaining 2 were cultured with IL-1 and allowed to recover in control medium before labelling. Control cultures were maintained in medium without IL-1 and labelled concurrently with the experimental series. The dermatan sulfate proteoglycans were purified from 4 M guanidinium chloride extracts of the cartilage by gel filtration on Sepharose CL-2B and CL-4B, on which they appeared as a single peak. Biglycan and decorin were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfide polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in high salt. Individual lanes from the gel were cut in slices, which were dissolved and counted for radioactivity. RESULTS: Ex vivo, biglycan accounted for 4% and decorin for 2% of total incorporated sulfate. IL-1 reduced the synthesis of biglycan to 77% of the level of cultured controls and that of decorin to 73%. The synthesis of both proteoglycans returned to the control levels when the IL-1 was removed. IL-1 (10 ng/ml, 2 days) had no significant effect on total proteoglycan synthesis. CONCLUSION: The inhibition of synthesis of biglycan and decorin by IL-1 might be important in the pathophysiology of cartilage destruction in rheumatic diseases.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Irreversible changes in glycosaminoglycan composition of anatomically intact bovine articular cartilage induced by intermittent loading.

The changes in matrix composition induced by I MPa intermittent (0.2 Hz) loading of anatomically intact bovine articular cartilage in vitro are studied. The kinetics of chondrocyte response was determined in experiments where sesamoid bones of adult cows were loaded for 0, 3, 5 and 7 days. The reversibility of the induced changes were studied in sesamoid bones that were loaded for 5 days and subsequently cultured without loading for another 1, 2 and 3 weeks. Water content was not affected by loading, nor by subsequent unloaded culture. Glycosaminoglycan content was not affected by loading, nor by subsequent unloaded culture for another 2 weeks. However, after 3 weeks of culture following 5 days of loading, a significant decrease in glycosaminoglycan content was found. Glycosaminoglycan synthesis was already increased after 3 days of loading. Loading for longer periods (5 and 7 days) further increased the glycosaminoglycan synthesis rate. Glycosaminoglycan synthesis decreased during the first week of subsequent culture without loading. In the third week it dropped to a lower level than observed for the control. The amount of 3-B-3(-) epitope was increased and the length of newly synthesized glycosaminoglycans was decreased by intermittent loading. Subsequent unloaded culture did not further increase the amount of 3-B-3(-) epitope. However, after 3 weeks of unloaded culture the newly synthesized glycosaminoglycans were as long as those synthesized in the control. The results suggest that the changes in glycosaminoglycan chain length were reversible. However, the overall chondrocyte response to our loading regime seems to be detrimental to the tissue: expression of 3-B-3(-) epitope induced by loading together with the drop in glycosaminoglycan content and synthesis observed at the end of the total culture period indicate that the cartilage is irreversibly damaged.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

[Anatomic features of the carpal joint of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatuw), compared with the domestic cat (Felis catus)].

The anatomy of the carpal joint of the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) was examined in seven specimens using dissection and corrosion casts as well as radiography, and compared to well-known data of the domestic cat (Felis catus). It was found that in the cheetah, as in the domestic cat, the intermedioradial, ulnar and accessory carpal bones, as well as the first, second, third and fourth carpal bones and the sesamoid bone of the abductor pollicis longus muscle, develop in a regular manner. The bones had a similar shape and the ligamentous apparatus was comparable, the most striking differences being the connection of all compartments of the joint cavity and the mediocarpal joint, working as a screw joint. The syndesmosis between the intermedioradial and ulnar carpal bones, instead of a synovial connection, is another adaptation for stabilization of the carpus of the cheetah during locomotion. The joint capsule is little spacious and in all three recesses can be differentiated. The first extends proximally palmar the ulnar carpal bone between the styloid process of the ulna and the accessory carpal bone, the second also extends proximally mediopalmar of the intermedioradial bone, and the largest third recess is located on the dorsal surface and extends proximally, laterally to the inserting tendon of the extensor carpi radialis muscle.

Acinonyx↗
PubMed2001

Scedosporium prolificans infection associated with arthritis and osteomyelitis in a horse.

Scedosporium prolificans was associated with arthritis and degenerative osteomyelitis in a 6-year-old Thoroughbred racehorse. The horse was suspected to have an inflammatory lesion of the interosseous tendon, but treatment had resulted in only a minimal response. Shortly after diagnostic arthrocentesis of the left metacarpophalangeal joint was performed, the joint became severely swollen, and radiography of the area revealed lysis of the distal end of the third metacarpal bone, the proximal sesamoid bones, and the proximal end of the proximal phalanx. The horse did not respond to treatment and was euthanatized. At necropsy, severe erosive arthritis and degenerative osteomyelitis of the left metacarpophalangeal joint were seen. Swab specimens of the ulcerated lesions of the articular cartilage were submitted for microbial culture, and Scedosporium prolificans was isolated. Scedosporium prolificans is a newly recognized opportunistic fungal pathogen of humans and animals. In humans, S prolificans typically causes focal locally invasive infections that primarily involve musculoskeletal tissues; most often, infection is a result of penetrating trauma or surgical incision. In immunocompromised patients, fatal disseminated infection can occur. The fungus is resistant to almost all currently available antimycotic agents.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Treatment of rupture of suspensory ligament and superficial flexor tendon in a bull.

Rupture of the suspensory ligament at the insertions on the proximal sesamoid bones, and of the superficial flexor tendon of the left fore limb, occurred in an adult Angus bull as a result of fighting. There was severe hyperextension of the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint with the dewclaws almost touching the ground. Radiographs revealed severe hyperextension of the MCP joint with the sesamoid bones aligned directly distal to the metacarpus. Initially, a full length fiberglass cast was applied with the limb partially flexed within the cast and the heels elevated. The cast was replaced twice. The cast was removed after 136 days and the bull was bearing full weight on the limb. Prolonged immobilisation of the limb produced new bone in the area (a normal response in cattle) to cause ankylosis of the traumatized MCP joint and partial ankylosis of the carpus. The bull was being used for pasture breeding one year after the injury.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

In vitro strength of the suspensory apparatus in training and resting horses.

Forty-eight limbs of 12 freshly euthanized horses were used to generate data on the strength of the equine suspensory apparatus. The point of failure of the suspensory apparatus of each limb was determined. Immediately before euthanasia, 6 of the 12 horses (thoroughbreds and standardbreds) had been engaged in active training or racing, and six horses in stall and/or pasture activity. In the actively training or racing horses, the point of acute failure of the suspensory apparatus was within the proximal sesamoid bones in 20 (83%) limbs (resulting in 17 apical fractures, 2 basilar fractures, and 1 midbody fracture). In the pasture exercised or stalled horses, the point of failure of the suspensory apparatus was either acutely within the suspensory ligament (10 horses, 42%) or, if no acute failure occurred, insidiously within the suspensory ligament (12 horses, 50%). Active training appeared to have a strengthening effect on the suspensory ligament, causing the weakest point in the suspensory apparatus to become the sesamoid bones rather than the suspensory ligament. An average force of 1338 kg (between 1082 and 1673 kg) was needed to fail the suspensory apparatus in this group of horses. In nontraining horses, the site of failure was most often the suspensory ligament. An average force of 1100 kg (between 918 and 1241 kg) used to fail the suspensory apparatus in this group of horses was significantly (p less than 0.5) less than in the first group.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Incidence and clinical significance of sesamoid disease in rottweilers.

A group of 55 rottweiler pups was studied from three to 12 months old to assess the incidence and clinical significance of disease involving the palmar metacarpal sesamoid bones. The results of physical examination were correlated with clinical signs of lameness and the results of radiographic examination of the forefeet. Twenty-one dogs became lame during the study and in 12 of them the lameness was attributable to sesamoid disease. However by 12 months of age, the incidence of sesamoid disease as assessed by radiographic changes in the sesamoid bones was 73 per cent (30 of 41 dogs). Six of the 12 dogs which were lame owing to sesamoid disease got better without specific treatment. It was concluded that sesamoid disease can result in clinical lameness in young rottweilers, but that subclinical disease is common.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1998

An additional bone in the sclera of the eyes of owls and the common potoo (Nictibius griseus) and its role in the contraction of the nictitating membrane.

Morphometric, anatomical and histological examinations were made in 10 species of owls of the families Tytonidae and Strigidae and compared with the eyes of other species of nocturnal birds including common potoo (Nictibiidae) and three species of nightjars (Caprimulgidae) and two diurnal species: the roadside hawk (Accipitridae) and the domestic duck (Anatidae). In owls and the common potoo the nictitating membrane is situated on the dorsal edge of the eye. In these birds, the scleral ring bears an additional, previously undescribed bone of various forms and dimensions (1.4-6.8 mm of length and 0.8-3.3 mm of width), located on the trajectory of the tendon of the pyramidal muscle which is attached to the nictitating membrane. This bone has a groove that encloses the tendon of the pyramidal muscle, preventing it from separating from the sclera during contraction, as well as diverting the trajectory of the tendon to impede it from projecting itself over the cornea. In the ferruginous pygmy owl, Nacunda nighthawk, Pauraque, scissor-tailed nightjar, roadside hawk and domestic duck the additional bone was not seen. Based on the morphofunctional characteristics of the bone, we suggest that this bone should be named the scleral sesamoid bone.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Miscellaneous conditions of the equine foot.

The etiology, clinical presentation, radiographic findings, diagnostic criteria, differential diagnoses, treatment, and prognosis are reviewed for several clinically important conditions of the equine foot. These include pedal osteitis, sheared heels, distal sesamoid bone (navicular) fractures, subchondral bone cyst of the distal phalanx, distal interphalangeal joint subluxation, congenital phalangeal hypoplasia, bipartite and tripartite distal sesamoid bones, keratoma, ossification of the cartilages of the distal phalanx (sidebones), necrosis of the cartilages of the distal phalanx (quittor), thrush, canker, vesicular stomatitis, and chronic selenium toxicosis.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Anatomical study of human adductor hallucis muscle with respect to its origin and insertion.

The adductor hallucis muscle (ADH) is evolutionally and functionally important, but no detailed morphological data about this muscle in the human body is available. In the present study, we examined the origin and insertion of the oblique and transverse heads of the ADH. Forty-five feet (20 right, 25 left) of 34 cadavers (13 men, 21 women, average age of 80 years old) were used in the present study. The origin, insertion and nerve supplies of the oblique and transverse heads of the ADH were macroscopically examined in detail. Most commonly, the oblique head of the ADH arose from the bases of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones, the plantar metatarsal ligaments spanned between the bases of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th metatarsal bones, the lateral cuneiform bone, the fibrous sheath of the tendon of the peroneus longus muscle and the long plantar ligament, and inserted into the lateral sesamoid bone of the great toe and the capsule of the 1st metatarsophalangeal joint. Most commonly, the transverse head of the ADH originated from the capsules of the 3rd and 4th (and occasionally 5th) metatarsophalangeal joint and the deep transverse metatarsal ligaments, and inserted into the lateral sesamoid bone of the great toe, the capsule of the 1st metatarsophalangeal joint and lateral surface of the base of the 1st proximal phalanx. This muscle was classified into four types based on the origin of its oblique head and was classified into three types based on the origin of its transverse head. The percent ratio of the weight of the oblique head to the total weight of all the intrinsic muscles of the foot was 9.4% +/- 1.5, and the transverse head was 1.5% +/- 0.6 (n = 14). The transverse head of ADH tends to be reduced in size in the human, but the oblique head is well developed with no sign of reduction.

Aged↗
PubMed1988

Skeletal anomalies in trisomy 21 as an example of amplified developmental instability in chromosome disorders: a histological study of the feet of 21 mid-trimester fetuses with trisomy 21.

In a previous radiographic study on the feet of 71 adults with trisomy 21 we found, in comparison to control individuals, an increased prevalence of biphalangeal toes and metatarsophalangeal sesamoid bones. The present histological study on the feet of 21 mid-trimester fetuses with prenatally diagnosed trisomy 21 confirms results of the earlier study. At both stages of development these minor bone anomalies have about the same frequency, thus suggesting 1) that they are selectively neutral, and 2) that they reflect a basic (innate) failure of ordered morphogenesis. Our observation that the normal spatial pattern of skeletal variants is reproduced in trisomy 21 simply on a quantitatively higher level lends sound support to the hypothesis of amplified developmental instability in chromosome trisomies.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

Pathologic anatomy of hallux abducto valgus.

HAV is a joint deformity that has some very characteristic anatomic features but that may be developed from a variety of interactive causes, both anatomic and functional. In the normal condition, the first metatarsal bone and hallucal phalanges form an axial array of bones. At the first metatarsophalangeal joint this arrangement is stabilized by a set of muscles whose tendons surround the joint. The pathology is associated with the deviation of the bones from their axial position and the related destabilization of the muscle group around the joint, specifically: (1) The hallux deviates and rotates laterally, while the first metatarsal deviates medially and also rotates laterally to some degree. (2) Deviation of the two main segments of the joint causes tearing and weakening of the medial capsular fibers and pulls the sesamoid bones and metatarsal head away from their normal plantar articulation. (3) Abnormal articulation of the sesamoid bones under the crista and pressure of the medial capsular wall cause erosion of cartilage and subchondral bone on the metatarsal head. (4) Deviation of the hallux redistributes the tendon insertions in relation to the joint axes of motion such that they serve to aggravate the deviation. (5) The deviated position of the hallux and eccentric actions of the tendons create a reaction force on the metatarsal head that serves to further medially displace the first metatarsal bone.

Hallux Valgus↗
PubMed2002

The evolution of tendon--morphology and material properties.

Phylogenetically, tendinous tissue first appears in the invertebrate chordate Branchiostoma as myosepta. This two-dimensional array of collagen fibers is highly organized, with fibers running along two primary axes. In hagfish the first linear tendons appear and the myosepta have developed specialized regions with unidirectional fiber orientation-a linear tendon within the flat sheet of myoseptum. Tendons react to compressive load by first forming a fibrocartilaginous pad, and under severe stress, sesamoid bones. Evidence for this ability to react to load first arises in the cartilaginous fish, here documented in a tendon from the jaw of a hard-prey crushing stingray. Sesamoid bones are common in bony fish and also in tetrapods. Tendons will also calcify under tensile loads in some groups of birds, and this reaction to load is seen in no other vertebrates. We conclude that the evolutionary history of tendon gives us insight into the use of model systems for investigating tendon biology. Using mammal and fish models may be more appropriate than avian models because of the apparent evolution of a novel reaction to tensile loads in birds.

Animals↗