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PubMed1981

The basal ganglia-circa 1982. A review and commentary.

Our review has shown that recent studies with the new anterograde and retrograde axon transport methods have confirmed and extended our knowledge of the projection of the basal ganglia and clarified their sites of origin. They have thrown new light on certain topographic connectional relationships and revealed several new reciprocal connections between constituent nuclei of the basal ganglia. Similarly, attention has been drawn to the fact that there have also been many new histochemical techniques introduced in recent years that are now providing regional biochemical overlays for connectional maps of the central nervous system, especially regions in, or interconnecting with, the basal ganglia. However, although these new morphological biochemical maps are very complex and technically highly advanced, our understanding of the function controlled by the basal ganglia still remains primitive. The reader who is interested in some new ideas of the functional aspects of the basal ganglia is directed to Nauta's [88] proposed conceptual reorganization of the basal ganglia telencephalon and to Marsden's [72] more clinically orientated appraisal of the unsolved mysteries of the basal ganglia participation in the control of movement.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1996

Differential expression of the p75 nerve growth factor receptor in glia and neurons of the rat dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve transection.

Sympathetic nerve terminals on blood vessels within the dorsal root ganglia sprout after sciatic nerve lesions in the rat. The mechanism underlying this phenomenon is not clear, but might be predicted to involve nerve growth factor or its homologs because these factors are known to trigger collateral sprouting of undamaged sympathetic noradrenergic terminals. We have found that sciatic nerve lesions lead to a decreased expression of neuronal p75, the low-affinity receptor for the neurotrophins, but an increased expression of glial p75 in ipsilateral dorsal root ganglia. Intriguingly, the increased expression of p75 was found primarily in association with glia surrounding large-diameter neurons, which are those associated with the noradrenergic sprouts. A smaller but significant glial response was also found in contralateral ganglia. The glial response in ipsilateral ganglia could be mimicked by ventral, but not dorsal, root transection. The dorsal root lesion-induced glial responses in contralateral ganglia were greater than those induced by ventral root or sciatic nerve lesions. Combined lesions of dorsal root and either ventral root or sciatic nerve did not prevent the glial responses of ipsilateral ganglia, suggesting that a peripheral signal is involved. Colocalization studies indicate that tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive nerve sprouts were associated with p75-immunoreactive glial cells. Thus, increased glial synthesis of p75 might provide an explanation for the abnormal growth of sympathetic fibers in dorsal root ganglia after peripheral nerve injury.

Animals↗

PubMed1977

[Routes of blood flow away from human spinal ganglia].

Blood outflow from the spinal ganglia is accomplished along the deferent veins of the lateral part of the ganglia into the intravertebral veins (for most of cervical ganglia--into the veins surrounding the spinal cord artery), from the medial part of the ganglia--along the deferent veins into the longitudinal veins of the interal spinal plexus. Analysing total cross section area of the deferent veins of the spinal ganglia, we were able to reveal a gradual increases in cross section area from the cervical towards the lumbar veins, and a decrease towards the sacral veins. A ratio of total cross section area of the deferent veins to the volume unit of the ganglia substance characterizes capacitance density of the deferent venous bed of the spinal ganglia and is 0.01--0.014 mm2 per 1 mm3.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Distribution of herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2 genomes in human spinal ganglia studied by PCR and in situ hybridization.

Clinical data indicate that the recurring herpes simplex virus (HSV) from oro-labial lesions is HSV subtype 1 and that the virus from genital lesions is HSV-2. This suggests that HSV-1 and HSV-2 reside in latent forms in the trigeminal ganglia and sacral ganglia, respectively. However, the distribution of latent HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections in human spinal ganglia has not been fully examined. This report concerns the application of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and in situ hybridization (ISH) to such a study. By using PCR and employing the respective primers, HSV-1 and HSV-2 DNAs were detected in 207 of 524 samples from 262 spinal ganglia (from the cervical to the sacral ganglia) examined on both sides. The percentages of HSV-1 and HSV-2 detected in a given set of ganglia were similar, indicating an absence of site preference. By ISH, few but positive hybridization signals were detected evenly in sacral ganglia sections. The data suggest that regional specificity of recurrent HSV infections is not due to regional distribution of latent virus, but that local host factors may be important for recurrences.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide expression and modulation of neuronal excitability in guinea pig cardiac ganglia.

Cardiac output is regulated by the coordinate interactions of stimulatory sympathetic and inhibitory parasympathetic signals. Intracardiac parasympathetic ganglia are integrative centers of cardiac regulation, and modulation of the parasympathetic drive on the heart is accomplished by altering intrinsic cardiac ganglion neuron excitability. The pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP)/vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) family of peptides modulates cardiac function, and in guinea pig heart, PACAP appears to act directly on intrinsic parasympathetic cardiac ganglia neurons through PACAP-selective receptors. A multidisciplinary project tested whether cardiac PACAP peptides act through PACAP-selective receptors as excitatory neuromodulators amplifying the parasympathetic inhibition from guinea pig cardiac ganglia. The in vivo sources of regulatory PACAP peptides were localized immunocytochemically to neuronal fibers and a subpopulation of intrinsic postganglionic cardiac neurons. RT-PCR confirmed that cardiac ganglia expressed proPACAP transcripts and have PACAP peptide biosynthetic capabilities. Messenger RNA encoding PACAP-selective PAC1 receptor isoforms were also present in cardiac ganglia. Alternative splicing of PAC1 receptor transcripts produced predominant expression of the very short variant with neither HIP nor HOP cassettes; lower levels of the PAC1HOP2 receptor mRNA were present. Almost all of the parasympathetic neurons expressed membrane-associated PAC1 receptor proteins, localized immunocytochemically, which correlated with the population of cells that responded physiologically to PACAP peptides. PACAP depolarized cardiac ganglia neurons and increased neuronal membrane excitability. The rank order of peptide potency on membrane excitability in response to depolarizing currents was PACAP27>PACAP38>VIP. The PACAP-induced increase in excitability was not a function of membrane depolarization nor was it caused by alterations in action potential configuration. These results support roles for PACAP peptides as integrative modulators amplifying, through PACAP-selective receptors, the parasympathetic cardiac ganglia inhibition of cardiac output.

Adenylyl Cyclases↗

PubMed1994

Immunohistochemical localization of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type IV in the peripheral ganglia and paraganglia of developing and mature rats.

The immunohistochemical localization of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase type IV (CaM kinase IV) was examined in rat peripheral ganglia and paraganglia as well as brain. In sensory ganglia including the trigeminal and dorsal root ganglia, small- to medium-sized neurons were intensely immunoreactive. In the spinal cord, immunoreactive small neurons were seen in superficial laminae of the dorsal horn, whereas motoneurons were immunonegative. In autonomic ganglia including the superior cervical, celiac, and submandibular ganglia, almost all neurons were intensely immunoreactive for CaM kinase IV. In the small intestine, immunoreactive neurons were seen in the submucosal and myenteric ganglia. In all immunoreactive neurons, the immunoreactivity was localized predominantly in cell nuclei, whereas nucleoli and nerve fibers were completely free from immunoreaction. From the wide distribution and predominant nuclear localization of CaM kinase IV, it is suggested that CaM kinase IV might be involved in the modulation of gene transcription through the nuclear Ca(2+)-signaling in the peripheral as well as central nervous system.

Aging↗

PubMed1986

Distribution and ontogeny of SP, CGRP, SOM, and VIP in chick sensory and sympathetic ganglia.

The distribution and ontogeny of four neuropeptides in developing chick lumbosacral sensory and sympathetic ganglia were studied using immunohistochemical techniques. Antibodies to two of these peptides, substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), stained small neurons in the medial part of the dorsal root ganglia from embryonic Day 5 and Day 10, respectively, whereas neurons in the lateral part of the ganglia were negative; this distribution persisted throughout development. Both sets of neurons apparently send fibers to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord: SP to laminae I and II, and CGRP to lamina I, suggesting that the SP- and CGRP-positive sensory neurons are nociceptive or thermoreceptive. This correlation between the presence of SP or CGRP in a neuron and a particular functional modality thus provides evidence for a functional distinction between the mediodorsal and ventrolateral zones that are apparent during the development of chick dorsal root ganglia. Moreover, this study suggests that the type of neuron that develops within the dorsal root ganglion correlates with its position within the ganglion. In contrast to SP and CGRP, somatostatin (SOM) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) immunoreactivities were not seen in the lumbosacral sensory ganglia at any stage during development. However, both were present in sympathetic ganglia: SOM from embryonic Day 4.5 and VIP from embryonic Day 10. VIP immunoreactivity persisted throughout development in a large number of sympathetic neurons, but the number of cells with SOM immunoreactivity decreased from embryonic Day 10 onward. SOM therefore appears to be present only transiently in most chick lumbosacral sympathetic cells.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

[Ultrastructure of various ganglia of autonomic nervous system of the human embryo at the beginning of the mediator stage of ontogeny].

Neural ganglia of the heart and stomach, paravertebral and spinal ganglia have been studied electron microscopically in 8-10-week-old human embryos. Amateur neurons in the ganglia are at various stages of differentiation and sometimes they are not divided with glia. In the cardiac ganglia the most mature neural elements are defined, comparing to other ganglia studied. It is demonstrated both in the developmental degree of cellular organelles, including those of the granular endoplasmic reticulum, and in manifestation of the glial tunic. Synaptic contacts at the stage of their formation are revealed in the intracardiac and sympathetic (paraventral) neural ganglia.

Ganglia, Autonomic↗

PubMed1991

Gene expression for peptides in neurons of the petrosal and nodose ganglia in rat.

In situ hybridization was used to determine whether genes for neuropeptides [substance P/neurokinin A (SP/NKA), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), somatostatin (SOM), neuropeptide tyrosine (NPY) and cholecystokinin (CCK)] are expressed in inferior ganglia of the vagus (nodose) and glossopharyngeal (petrosal) nerves. Synthetic oligodeoxyribonucleotides, complementary to the cognate, mRNAs were labeled with [32P] or [35S], and hybridized to 10 microns thick sections of unperfused tissue which were then processed for film and emulsion autoradiography. We found numerous, clustered neuronal perikarya throughout the nodose and petrosal ganglia that expressed preprotachykinin A (SP/NKA) and CGRP mRNAs to varying degrees. Neurons expressing preproSOM mRNA were less abundant and more scattered throughout both ganglia. Notably, we found mRNA for NPY in cells (usually 5-10 per section) in both ganglia. To our knowledge, this is first evidence for NPY in these sensory ganglia. In contrast to previous immunohistochemical findings, we found no evidence for expression of preproCCK in either the nodose or petrosal ganglia. The present findings demonstrate that cells of the nodose and petrosal ganglia express the genes for a number of neuropeptides that are presumably involved with transmission of visceral sensory afferent information to higher order neurons of the central nervous system.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

The prevalence of wrist ganglia in an asymptomatic population: magnetic resonance evaluation.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed on the wrists of 103 asymptomatic volunteers. The images were evaluated independently by two musculoskeletal radiologists and one orthopaedic surgeon. Wrist ganglia were identified in 53 out of the 103 wrists. The average long and short axes measurements were 8 mm (range 3-22) and 3 mm (range 2-10), respectively. Seventy per cent of the ganglia originated from the palmar capsule in the region of the interval between the radioscaphocapitate ligament and the long radiolunate ligament. Fourteen per cent of the ganglia were dorsal and originated from the dorsal, distal fibres of the scapholunate ligament. Two ganglia had surrounding soft tissue oedema and one had an associated intraosseous component. Unlike previous surgical and pathological series, our study showed that palmar wrist ganglia are more common than dorsal wrist ganglia. The vast majority of these asymptomatic ganglia occur without associated ligamentous disruption, soft tissue oedema or intraosseous communication.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Distribution of tumor necrosis factor receptor messenger RNA in normal and herpes simplex virus infected trigeminal ganglia in the mouse.

PURPOSE: to investigate the distribution of p55 and p75 tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor mRNA in normal murine trigeminal ganglia, and in murine trigeminal ganglia acutely infected with McKrae strain herpes simplex virus (HSV). METHODS: in situ hybridization with antisense 35S-labeled riboprobes for mRNA encoding both the p55 and p75 TNF receptor (TNFR) subtypes was used in normal and HSV-infected murine trigeminal ganglia. Sense riboprobes were used as controls. RESULTS: in situ hybridization with both p55 and p75 riboprobes produced a strong autoradiographic signal over many, but not all, trigeminal sensory neurons. Signal for mRNA encoding both TNFR subtypes was also present over the arachnoid layers surrounding trigeminal ganglia. Acute ocular HSV infection was accompanied by an intense leukocytic infiltrate into the ophthalmic portion of the trigeminal ganglia, and, in this setting, increased p55 and p75 mRNA signal was closely related to the location and number of infiltrating white blood cells. The distribution and number of trigeminal sensory neurons expressing mRNA for the two TNFR subtypes did not appear to change following infection. Signal over control sections hybridized with sense p55 and p75 TNFR cRNA probes was comparable to background. CONCLUSIONS: the observed distribution of p55 and p75 TNFR mRNA over trigeminal sensory neurons and over the arachnoid layers surrounding trigeminal ganglia supports suggestions that TNF has a direct effect on neurons, either as a neuromodulator or neurotrophic factor, and that TNF may play a central role in blood-brain barrier regulation. Increased signal for TNFR mRNA in acutely infected trigeminal ganglia appears to reflect infiltration by receptor-bearing white blood cells.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Developmental changes in vasoactive intestinal polypeptide immunoreactivity in the human paravertebral ganglia.

Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) belongs to the glucagon-secretin family of polypeptides and possesses numerous functions. Its existence in the mammalian central and peripheral nervous system has been widely documented. However, there are no reports on the developmental aspects of VIP-like immunoreactivity (VIP-IR) in the human postganglionic sympathetic neurons. In this study the availability and distribution of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide has been localized in human stellate ganglia neurons and nerve fibers from neonates, children and adults using the immunohistochemical method. In neonatal ganglia VIP-immunoreactive postganglionic neurons were revealed in a marked population compared to others age-groups. These nerve cells are both small and large in size and are distributed in small clusters or singly in the area of ganglia sections. In children, VIP-IR in ganglionic neurons decreases. In adult stellate ganglia, VIP-immunoreactive postganglionic neurons rarely occur. In ganglia of an individual human only varicosities of VIP-positive nerve fibers were observed. These results provide the age-dependent reduction of VIP-like immunoreactivity in human stellate ganglia neurons and suggest the different role of this peptide in the function of sympathetic ganglia neurons with age.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

The coexistence of calcitonin gene-related peptide and substance P in pericellular arborization and satellite cell of goat trigeminal and nodose ganglia.

Pericellular arborization is reported to be the self-regulating structure in sensory ganglia. Although the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) or substance P (SP) immunoreactive pericellular arborization appeared in the sensory ganglia, there was no available information that CGRP and SP colocalize in this structure. As the attempts to resolve the question described above, the present study was undertaken to identify the coexistence of CGRP and SP in pericellular arborizations of the goat nodose and trigeminal ganglia by double immunohistochemistry. As the results show, CGRP immunoreactivity was present in every pericellular arborization containing SP immunoreactivity in trigeminal ganglia, however, pericellular network containing CGRP or SP immunoreactivity was not present in nodose ganglia. Unexpectedly, a few small satellite elements were observed to contain intense CGRP and SP immunoreactivity at the periphery of CGRP and SP immunoreactive neurones in nodose ganglia. Therefore, these results suggest that CGRP and SP coexist in pericellular arborizations, and that satellite cell as well as pericellular arborization may be involved in intraganglionic regulation of goat sensory ganglia.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Detection of varicella-zoster virus DNA in human geniculate ganglia by polymerase chain reaction.

Latent varicella-zoster virus (VZV) has been demonstrated in the human trigeminal and thoracic ganglia by means of nucleic acid hybridization. However, the human geniculate ganglia in VZV latency have not been examined. Tissue DNA extracted from the trigeminal and geniculate ganglia of a newborn and 7 adults was examined by polymerase chain reaction with a pair of VZV-specific primers. None had symptoms of recent infection with VZV (chickenpox or shingles). VZV DNA was detected in 11 (79%) of 14 trigeminal ganglia and in 9 (69%) of 13 geniculate ganglia of the adults. VZV DNA was not detected in either type of ganglion from the newborn or from 1 adult who was seronegative for VZV antibodies. These findings indicate that VZV becomes latent in human geniculate ganglia after primary infection and suggest the possibility that reactivation of the virus from the geniculate ganglia may cause Ramsay Hunt syndrome.

Adult↗

PubMed2007

Pathogenesis of simian immunodeficiency virus-induced alterations in macaque trigeminal ganglia.

Peripheral neuropathy is the most frequent neurologic complication associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, yet its pathogenesis remains poorly understood. To study the mechanisms causing HIV-induced peripheral nervous system disease, we examined trigeminal ganglia obtained from simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-inoculated macaques. SIV-infected macaques developed multifocal trigeminal ganglionitis of varying severity characterized by multifocal mononuclear infiltrates, neuronophagia, and neuronal loss resembling reports of HIV-associated changes present in dorsal root ganglia. Neuronal density, measured by calculating the fractional area of trigeminal ganglia occupied by neurons, was significantly lower in SIV-infected macaques versus uninfected macaques (p = 0.001). To characterize the inflammatory cell population and measure productive viral infection in ganglia, trigeminal ganglia from SIV-infected macaques were immunostained for macrophage or cytotoxic lymphocyte markers and for SIV gp41. The extent of macrophage infiltration in trigeminal ganglia was inversely correlated with neuronal loss (p = 0.001), whereas cytotoxic lymphocyte infiltration was not associated with neuronal loss. These studies demonstrate that alterations in the somatosensory ganglia of SIV-infected macaques closely parallel those observed in HIV-infected individuals and show that study of SIV-infected macaques may help elucidate the pathophysiology of HIV-induced peripheral neuropathy.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis of herpes simplex virus DNA in ganglia of mice infected with replication-incompetent mutants.

To study the roles of viral genes in the establishment and maintenance of herpes simplex virus (HSV) latency, we have developed a polymerase chain reaction assay that is both quantitative and sensitive. Using this assay, we analyzed the levels of viral DNA in trigeminal ganglia of mice inoculated corneally with HSV mutants that are defective for virus replication at one or more sites in mice and for reactivation upon ganglionic explant. Ganglia from mice infected with thymidine kinase-negative mutants, which replicate at the site of inoculation and establish latency but do not replicate acutely in ganglia or reactivate upon explant, contained a range of levels of HSV DNA that overlapped with the range found in ganglia latently infected with wild-type virus. On average, these mutant-infected ganglia contained one copy of HSV DNA per 100 cell equivalents (ca. 10(4) molecules), which was 50-fold less than the average for wild-type virus. Ganglia from mice infected with a ribonucleotide reductase deletion mutant, which is defective for acute replication and reactivation upon ganglionic explant, also contained on average one copy of HSV DNA per 100 cell equivalents. We also detected substantial numbers of HSV DNA molecules (up to ca. 10(3] in ganglia of mice infected with an ICP4 deletion mutant and other replication-negative mutants that are severely impaired for viral DNA replication and gene expression. These results raise the possibility that such mutants can establish latency, which could have important implications for mechanisms of latency and for vaccine and antiviral drug development.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Learning and memory functions of the Basal Ganglia.

Although the mammalian basal ganglia have long been implicated in motor behavior, it is generally recognized that the behavioral functions of this subcortical group of structures are not exclusively motoric in nature. Extensive evidence now indicates a role for the basal ganglia, in particular the dorsal striatum, in learning and memory. One prominent hypothesis is that this brain region mediates a form of learning in which stimulus-response (S-R) associations or habits are incrementally acquired. Support for this hypothesis is provided by numerous neurobehavioral studies in different mammalian species, including rats, monkeys, and humans. In rats and monkeys, localized brain lesion and pharmacological approaches have been used to examine the role of the basal ganglia in S-R learning. In humans, study of patients with neurodegenerative diseases that compromise the basal ganglia, as well as research using brain neuroimaging techniques, also provide evidence of a role for the basal ganglia in habit learning. Several of these studies have dissociated the role of the basal ganglia in S-R learning from those of a cognitive or declarative medial temporal lobe memory system that includes the hippocampus as a primary component. Evidence suggests that during learning, basal ganglia and medial temporal lobe memory systems are activated simultaneously and that in some learning situations competitive interference exists between these two systems.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Origins of the insect enteric nervous system: differentiation of the enteric ganglia from a neurogenic epithelium.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) of the moth Manduca sexta is organized into two distinct cellular domains: an anterior domain that includes several small ganglia on the surface of the foregut, and a more posterior domain consisting of a branching nerve plexus (the enteric plexus) that spans the foregut-midgut boundary. Previously, we showed that the neurons of the posterior domain, the enteric plexus, are generated from a large placode that invaginates from the caudal lip of the foregut; subsequently, the cells become distributed throughout the enteric plexus by a sequence of active migration. We now demonstrate that the neurons of the anterior domain, the cells of the enteric ganglia, arise via a distinct developmental sequence. Shortly after the foregut has begun to form, three neurogenic zones differentiate within the foregut epithelium and give rise to chains of cells that emerge onto the foregut surface. The three zones are not sites of active mitosis, as indicated by the absence of labelling with a thymidine analogue and by clonal analyses using intracellularly injected dyes. Rather, the zones serve as loci through which epithelial cells are recruited into a sequence of delamination and neuronal differentiation. As they emerge from the epithelium, the cells briefly become mitotically active, each cell dividing once or twice. In this manner, they resemble the midline precursor class of neural progenitors in the insect central nervous system more than neuroblast stem cells. The progeny of these zone-derived precursors then gradually coalesce into the ganglia and nerves of the anterior ENS. Although this reorganization results in some variability in the precise configuration of neurons within the ganglia, the overall morphology of the ganglia is highly stereotyped, consisting of cortical layers of cells that surround a ventral neuropil. In addition, a number of the neurons within the frontal and hypocerebral ganglia express identifiable phenotypes in a manner that is similar to many cells of the insect central nervous system. These observations indicate that the differentiation of the enteric ganglia in Manduca involves an unusual combination of features seen during the formation of other regions of the nervous system and, as such, constitutes a distinct program of neurogenesis.

Animals↗