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PubMed1997

Effects of short- and long-term withdrawal from gestational cocaine treatment on maternal behavior and aggression in Sprague-Dawley rats.

Pregnant rats were treated with 30 mg/kg per day cocaine or normal saline either throughout gestation (GD 1-20, cocaine and saline withdrawal) or throughout the gestation and continuing into lactation for 10 days postpartum (cocaine and saline nonwithdrawal). All cocaine-treated dams exhibited more disruptions in the onset of maternal behavior (retrieval, licking, crouching) and were more aggressive (threats and attacks) towards an intruder on postpartum day 6 than saline-treated dams. There were no significant differences in these behaviors between withdrawn and nonwithdrawn cocaine-treated dams. These findings indicate that changes in maternal behavior following chronic moderate cocaine treatment are not simply the result of withdrawal from cocaine treatment following gestation and that other possible mechanisms should be examined.

Aggression↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Lead induced alterations in maternal behavior and offspring development in the rat.

The study was designed to determine whether lead ingestion by nursing rats would affect dam-pup interaction. Dams were exposed to diets with 0.0, 0.2, 0.4 or 1.0 percent by weight metallic lead. Mean blood-lead levels of pups at weaning were 3, 19, 40 and 57 micrograms/100 ml of blood respectively. Maternal behavior was assessed by videotaping behavior for complete 24 hour periods on alternate days from birth to weaning. Analysis of data revealed that lead affected dams nursed for longer periods than normal and offspring were slower to explore their environment. It was concluded that altered maternal behavior was related to delays in pup development and the functional isolation of experimental pups from their environment may be the antecedent to altered behavior later in maturity.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Perioral anesthesia disrupts maternal behavior during early lactation in Long-Evans rats.

The role of perioral somatosensory stimulation from pups in maternal behavior was investigated in lactating Long-Evans rats (Rattus norvegicus) during early lactation by local anesthesia of the mystacial pads with lidocaine, which blocks conduction in the infraorbital nerve. It was concluded that (1) acute perioral anesthesia markedly inhibited pup retrieval when the subjects had no formal pretreatment retrieval experience. Further, these dams displayed little tolerance to the lidocaine treatment when they were tested repeatedly. (2) The severity of the effects of perioral anesthesia on retrieval was dependent upon prior experience and the testing situation. Following pretreatment retrieval experience, and in a test cage with dark and light compartments which provided a strong incentive to retrieve, 80% of lidocaine-injected dams did retrieve. However, retrieval efficiency was impaired by perioral anesthesia, largely due to increased time in contact with pups prior to each retrieval and to increased carrying time. (3) Perioral anesthesia also inhibited pup licking, but not self-grooming, suggesting that the former, but not the latter, is largely under peripheral stimulus control and that deficits in maternal oral activities cannot be due to impairment of mouth opening and use. (4) The onset of nursing behavior was delayed until after the recovery of snout sensations and retrieval. This suggests that a maternal behavior not directly involving the mouth is nonetheless dependent upon the dam's receipt of perioral tactile input from pups.

Anesthesia, Local↗

PubMed1983

Maternal behavior priming in virgin and caesarean-delivered Long-Evans rats: effects of brief contact or continuous exteroceptive pup stimulation.

The effects of 8 days of prior exposure to pups (Priming) in the form of continuous exteroceptive (smell, sight and sound), or 15 min/day physical access (taste and touch possible) stimulation on the subsequent latency to become maternal during cohabitation with pups (concaveation) was studied in Long-Evans female rats. Brief daily access was effective in hastening the onset of maternal behavior only in those virgins which engaged in pup licking during Priming and in maintaining short-latency maternal responsiveness only in those day 21 pregnancy-terminated, thelectomized rats which initiated maternal behavior during Priming. Exteroceptive stimulation was ineffective in both virgins and caesarean-sectioned rats. These findings stress the importance of physical interactions with pups (unrelated to nipple stimulation) for the development of nurturance.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Seizure-prone EL mice exhibit deficits in pup nursing and retrieval assessed using a novel method of maternal behavior phenotyping.

The selectively bred EL mouse strain exhibits hyperreactivity to environmental disturbance reflected by handling-induced seizures and motor hyperactivity in an exploratory task relative to a non-seizure-prone control strain. One possible mechanism for the nongenomic transmission of an adult seizure-prone/hyperactive phenotype is the quality of parenting provided to immature offspring. In particular, the quality of maternal behavior has been implicated as an environmental determinant in rodent biochemical and behavioral development. A complication in testing this hypothesis is that human handling for husbandry and testing itself triggers seizures in seizure-prone EL mice. Thus, the present study evaluated potential EL versus control strain differences in maternal behavior using a novel apparatus for passive observation of undisturbed mice. Nonmaternal behaviors were also measured to control for any nonspecific differences in activity or exploration. EL dams were slower than DDY controls to initiate pup retrieval and spent less time nursing/crouching over pups than DDY mice. EL dams also exhibited a profile of sustained exploration and grooming over time relative to the profile of DDY controls. These results suggest that EL mothers exhibit an overabundance of motor activities that compete with crouching/nursing and retrieval behaviors required for viability of the litter.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Maternal behavior induced in male rats by bilateral lesions of the bed nucleus of the accessory olfactory tract.

In the present study, we investigate the effect of bilateral electrolytic lesions of the bed nucleus of the accessory olfactory tract (BAOT) in male Wistar rats that did not have care-pups experience, using a test of induced maternal behavior. Consistent with our previous findings in virgin female rats (10), there was a significantly shorter sensitization (3 days) and retrieval (2 days) latencies in the BAOT-lesioned group than in the sham-lesioned and intact-control male groups (12 days for both). Based on these findings, we propose that BAOT, a sexually dimorphic nucleus of the vomeronasal system, exerts an inhibitory modulation in the expression of parental behavior in male and female virgin rats. It may do so by maintaining an olfactory-based tonic inhibition of maternal behavior, thereby resulting in the adults' tonic avoidance of the pups until this inhibition is abolished by lesion, or reduced or overridden by appropriate hormonal and/or sensory influences.

Amygdala↗

PubMed1979

Maternal behavior in two rat lines selected for differences in the acquisition of two-way avoidance.

The maternal behavior of Roman high- and low-avoidance (RHA/Verh and RLA/Verh) rats was studied, using a time-sampling method. It was concluded that: a)RLA/Verh mothers spent more time with their young, b) RHA/Verh mothers were more active, and c) the mothers of both lines mostly "blanketed' their young during nursing, although the RHA/Verh mothers assumed the side-nursing position more often than their counterparts.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Litter gender composition affects maternal behavior of the primiparous mouse dam (Mus musculus).

Thirty-nine litters of the outbred Swiss CD-1 mouse strain were reduced at birth to 6 pups, according to three conditions: MM (all males), MF (3 males and 3 females), or FF (all females). The maternal behavior of their respective dams (frequency and duration of nursing, licking, nest-building, and other activities such as eating, drinking, sniffing, grooming, and undirected locomotor activity) were scored during a single 10-min session on Days 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 14, and 18. Dams rearing MM litters showed higher scores of maternal care on Days 2 and 18 in the case of nursing, on Days 2, 7, and 10 in the case of nest-building, and on Day 18 in the case of licking. These results confirm previous rat data, which indicated that male and female pups are exposed early in infancy to a different pattern of maternal behavior. Concomitant measurements of pup development (body-weight gain and achievement of a number of physiological and neurobehavioral landmarks) indicated that these effects of litter gender composition are not mediated by gross changes in the maturational trends of the pups.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Prolonged estrogen-progesterone treatment of nonpregnant ovariectomized rats: factors stimulating home-cage and maternal aggression and short-latency maternal behavior.

A 16-day treatment of nonpregnant, ovariectomized rats using 5-mm Silastic implants of estradiol (E), daily injections of 4 mg of progesterone (P), and terminal injections of 5 micrograms/kg of estradiol benzoate (EB) to provide a pregnancy-like pattern of hormone exposure, stimulates (a) home-cage aggression toward unfamiliar intruder rats, (b) short-latency maternal behavior when the females are exposed continuously to pups, and (c) maternal aggression after maternal care has been initiated. Preliminary experiments examined the persistence of stimulation of aggression by the 16-day treatment in the absence of exposure to pups eliciting maternal care, and whether an abbreviated, 1-week treatment stimulates aggression equally. Subsequent experiments examined the importance of the elements of the treatment (E implants, P injections, EB injection), and whether prolonging exposure to P or E would alter its behavioral effects. The full 16-day E/P/EB treatment stimulated higher levels of home-cage and maternal aggression, and shorter maternal behavior latencies than abbreviated and partial treatments. E in combination with P or EB significantly raised home-cage aggression, whereas P alone was without effect. Administering P for 2 additional days attenuated reductions in maternal behavior latencies by E/P/EB, but did not reduce home-cage or maternal aggressiveness. Continuous exposure to E throughout testing did not affect any dependent variable. Comparing these findings to earlier data and reports suggests that hormone exposure for 2 weeks or more, and provision of P levels approaching those of pregnancy are important to the effects of the E/P/EB treatment on aggression.

Aggression↗

PubMed1987

Peridural anesthesia disturbs maternal behavior in primiparous and multiparous parturient ewes.

Several experiments were carried out to study the effects of peridural anesthesia (Sylvocaine, 6 ml between sacrum and 1st caudal vertebra) performed either at the first signs of birth (early peridural: EP), or little before expulsion (late peridural: LP). When performed late, peridural anesthesia altered maternal behavior only slightly when compared with controls. By contrast severe deficits were observed in the case of EP. Seven out of 8 primiparae failed to show interest for their lamb within 30 min of the birth of the young (vs. 1/9 in LP group, p less than 0.01). In multiparae these proportions were 8/27 and 0/22 respectively (p less than 0.01). Within the EP group the effects of the peridural were more marked in primiparous than in multiparous mothers (p less than 0.05). Even in EP multiparous ewes becoming maternal within 5 min after giving birth a reduction in duration of licking was noted, when compared with the LP group (p less than 0.05). On the other hand, these same ewes established normally a selective bond within 2 hours after giving birth, as did the LP or control ewes. These results confirm the importance of genital stimulation for the rapid onset of maternal behavior in parturient ewes. They failed however to clarify the role played by genital stimulation in the establishment of a selective maternal bond.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1986

Responses to novel odors mediate maternal behavior and concaveation in gerbils.

In a series of three experiments we examined: (Experiment 1) responses to novel odors by early- and late-maturing not-pregnant, pregnant, nursing and postweaning female Mongolian gerbils, (Experiment 2) the response of the same eight groups of female gerbils to unfamiliar pups, and (Experiment 3) the rate of induction of maternal behavior by concaveation in early- and late-maturing nulliparous gerbils. We found: (1) that those females that responded relatively positively to novel odors in Experiment 1 were more likely to retrieve and less likely to attack unfamiliar pups in Experiment 2 than those females responding relatively negatively to novel odors in Experiment 1, and (2) that early-maturing nulliparous gerbils both responded more positively to novel odors and exhibited more rapid induction of maternal behavior by concaveation than late-maturing nulliparous gerbils. The results both confirm and extend Fleming and Rosenblatt's (1974) hypothesis that differences in response to novel odors mediate individual differences in maternal responsiveness.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Effect of preoptic region implants of dilute estradiol on the maternal behavior of ovariectomized, nulliparous rats.

Estrogen implanted directly into the medial preoptic region of pregnant Charles River Sprague-Dawley rats hysterectomized and ovariectomized on Day 16 of gestation mimics the effects of systemic estrogen treatment at this time by reducing the latency to respond to foster pups with maternal behavior (Numan, Rosenblatt, and Komisaruk, 1977). The present report describes the pup-directed responses of ovariectomized, nulliparous Zivic-Miller Sprague-Dawley rats that received bilateral medial preoptic implants of either cholesterol (n = 11) or estradiol diluted 1:10 with cholesterol (n = 11). Two days after treatment these animals were housed with three foster pups: their responsivity to pups and quality of nests built were then assessed, at first hourly and then daily. Rats receiving intracranial estradiol required significantly shorter exposures to pups than did cholesterol-treated animals before initiating carrying and grouping of 3 dispersed pups in a maternal nest during a 15-min test. On other measures, however, the groups did not differ (e.g., proportion grouping pups overnight, time required to complete retrieval of pups to the nest, time required to rebuild a disrupted nest). Animals treated with cholesterol and animals with estradiol implants did not differ in uterine weight at the time of sacrifice, suggesting that estrogen did not leak, even from this well-vascularized implant site, into the circulation. Thus, as in the pregnant animal, the facilitating effects of estrogen on maternal behavior can be mediated through the medial preoptic region; however, the effects were evident only when a test requiring retrieval of several pups within an arbitrarily short interval was given.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Chronic leptin administration in developing rats reduces stress responsiveness partly through changes in maternal behavior.

In adult rodents, leptin has been shown to significantly alter the activity of several neuroendocrine functions, including the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Leptin is generally believed to be inhibitory to HPA activity in adults. Developing rat pups have high circulating levels of leptin, which begs the question of leptin's physiological role in controlling basal and stress-induced adrenocortical activity in neonatal rats. In this study, we treated rat pups daily from days 2-9 (or 6-10) of life with either vehicle or leptin (1 or 3 mg/kg body wt, ip) and determined the effects on body weight gain, fat pad deposits, and HPA activity in 10-day-old pups. We measured hypothalamic CRF mRNA levels in vehicle- and leptin-treated pups by in situ hybridization and determined plasma ACTH, corticosterone, and leptin concentrations under basal conditions or following exposure to a 3-min ether stress. Because leptin activates sympathetic activity and energy expenditure in adults and possibly also in rat pups, and because litter temperature is an important determinant of maternal behavior, we also investigated whether chronic leptin administration would modify aspects of maternal care that are important for the maintenance of HPA function. Chronic leptin treatment increased circulating levels of leptin and had significant dose-related metabolic effects, including reduced body weight gain and fat pad weight in 10-day-old pups. Basal expression of CRF mRNA in the PVN or secretion of ACTH and corticosterone was not modified by leptin treatment. In contrast, chronically elevated leptin concentrations during the neonatal period significantly lowered CRF expression in the PVN 60 min after stress and reduced the duration of the ACTH response to stress in pups, suggesting that glucocorticoid feedback on the HPA axis might be altered by this treatment. In addition, mothers caring for pups injected with leptin displayed longer bouts of anogenital licking of pups than mothers of vehicle-treated rats. Given that this particular type of pup stimulation has been shown to influence stress responsiveness, it is possible that the maternal response modulates the effects of exogenous leptin treatment. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the leptin signal is functional during the early developmental period and that leptin can modulate the hormonal response to stress in young rats either by a direct effect on the HPA axis or indirectly through changing some aspects of maternal behavior.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1997

Impaired maternal behavior in mice lacking norepinephrine and epinephrine.

The roles of norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine in behavior were investigated by targeted disruption of the dopamine beta-hydroxylase (Dbh) gene, thereby eliminating these compounds in vivo. Most heterozygous pups born to Dbh-/- females died within several days of birth and were often found scattered within the bedding. Potential causes including deficits in olfaction and lactation were not apparent. A deficit in maternal behavior was confirmed by the lack of pup retrieval exhibited by Dbh-/- virgin females. Restoration of NE shortly before but not after birth induced females that previously abandoned their litters to act maternally. Our results suggest that NE is responsible for long-lasting changes that promote maternal behavior during both development and parturition in mice.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Intrauterine position modulates maternal behaviors in female mice.

Intrauterine position (IUP), the proximity of a fetus relative to same and opposite sex fetuses, is a reliable predictor of the direction and intensity of social and regulatory behaviors in adult male and female mice. In the present experiment, female Rockland-Swiss (R-S) mice who had resided in utero between two females (OM) and females who had resided between two males (2M) were compared with respect to five indices of maternal behavior: Spontaneous parental responses exhibited toward neonates; nestbuilding during pregnancy; aggression during pregnancy; aggression during lactation; and reproductive/lactation performance. There was no significant difference between 0M and 2M females in their spontaneous parental responses toward neonates or their level of nestbuilding behavior during pregnancy. However, when tested for aggression during pregnancy and lactation, 2M females exhibited aggression on a greater number of test days during pregnancy than did 0M females. Also, during pregnancy and lactation, 2M females displayed more lunges and attacks toward adult male intruders than 0M females. Although 0M females tended to have larger litters than 2M females, the animals did not differ with respect to any other measure of reproductive/lactation performance. Intrauterine position, therefore, modulates some aspects of maternal behavior but apparently not others.

Aggression↗

PubMed1967

Maternal behavior in the domestic cock under the influence of alcohol.

When normal male domestic chickens were given a single dose of grain alcohol and then exposed to newly hatched chicks, they, assumed maternal behavior. The same behavior can be elicited by the admniinistration of prolactin, but the results of these experimens suggest that maternal behavior in tlhe cock is not excliusively dependent on hormonal mechanisms.

Aggression↗

PubMed1994

The 'good mother'--a comparative study of Swedish, Italian and American maternal behavior and goals.

This paper is based on a comparative, psychologically informed ethnographic study of maternal goals and infant care during the first year of life for 20 mothers and infants in each of three Western settings: Stockholm, Sweden, outside Rome, Italy, and suburban Boston, in the United States. Two research questions were posed to consider cultural ideas and ideals about mothering; How was the 'good mother' defined? How did sample women themselves, mother? Research hypotheses were that definitions of a good mother would be culture-specific with minimal within-culture variance. Furthermore, the frequency of maternal behaviors would also exhibit culture specific patterns. Research methods included event based behavioral observations of infant-caregiver interactions in the home, daily routine questionnaires, maternal attitude interviews, and ethnographic observations of community and family life. Research hypothesis were confirmed. Results revealed culture-specific variation in conceptions of the 'good mother'. Cultural differences were reflected in the short- and long-term goals which the sample women described for their children. Patterns of infant care, in turn, were consistent with the cultural values expressed, as well as the cultural norms of social interaction.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Heterotrimeric G proteins of the Gq/11 family are crucial for the induction of maternal behavior in mice.

Heterotrimeric G proteins of the G(q/11) family transduce signals from a variety of neurotransmitter receptors and have therefore been implicated in several functions of the central nervous system. To investigate the potential role of G(q/11) signaling in behavior, we generated mice which lack the alpha-subunits of the two main members of the G(q/11) family, Galpha(q) and Galpha(11), selectively in the forebrain. We show here that forebrain Galpha(q/11)-deficient females do not display any maternal behavior such as nest building, pup retrieving, crouching, or nursing. However, olfaction, motor behavior and mammary gland function are normal in forebrain Galpha(q/11)-deficient females. We used c-fos immunohistochemistry to investigate pup-induced neuronal activation in different forebrain regions and found a significant reduction in the medial preoptic area, the bed nucleus of stria terminalis, and the lateral septum both in postpartum females and in virgin females after foster pup exposure. Pituitary function, especially prolactin release, was normal in forebrain Galpha(q/11)-deficient females, and activation of oxytocin receptor-positive neurons in the hypothalamus did not differ between genotypes. Our findings show that G(q/11) signaling is indispensable to the neuronal circuit that connects the perception of pup-related stimuli to the initiation of maternal behavior and that this defect cannot be attributed to either reduced systemic prolactin levels or impaired activation of oxytocin receptor-positive neurons of the hypothalamus.

Animals↗