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PubMed2000

When further learning fails: stability and change following repeated presentation of text.

Kay (1955) presented a text passage to participants on a weekly basis and found that most errors and omissions in recall persisted despite repeated re-presentation of the text. Experiment I replicated and extended Kay's original research, demonstrating that after a first recall attempt there was very little evidence of further learning, whether measured in terms of further acquisition or error correction, over three more presentations of the text passages. Varying the schedule of presentations and tests had little effect, although performance was better when intermediate trials included both presentation and test than when only presentations or tests occurred. Experiment 2 explored whether this 'failure of further learning' effect could be overcome by (a) warning participants against basing their recall on their previous recall efforts and specifically directing them to base their recall upon the passages, (b) making each presentation more distinctive, or (c) drawing participants' attention to areas that would benefit from further learning by requiring them to tally their omissions and errors. The effect persisted in all cases. The findings have serious implications for the learning of text material.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Reliance on visual imagery and its relation to mental rotation.

The relationship of habitual use of visual imagery and mental rotation was investigated. Reliance on Visual Imagery scores were used to define subjects as high frequency or low frequency visualizers. During the mental rotation task, subjects indicated if a pair of 2-dimensional stimulus figures displayed on a computer screen were identical or mirror-images. Figures on the right were rotated in relation to those on the left by 0, 60, 120, or 180 degrees. Data supported the prediction that subjects who report high use of imagery would perform the task with greater accuracy (z = 1.97, p < .05) than subjects who reported low use. The imagery groups did not differ in response latency (z = .91, p < .36). A comparison of performance on Trials 1 to 24 with performance on Trials 115-138 indicated a learning effect in both accuracy (z = 7.58, p < .01) and latency (z = 9.72, p < .01) for all subjects.

Cognition↗
PubMed2005

The list strength effect: a contextual competition account.

Research on the list strength effect (LSE) has shown that learning some words on a list more strongly than others impairs memory for the weakly learned words when tested with a recall task. Norman (2002) demonstrated that the LSE also occurs within the recollection process of a recognition test. In this study, a mechanistic dual-process account of the LSE was tested that simultaneously makes predictions concerning additional sources of context in interference effects. In two experiments, we attempted to replicate Norman's (2002) findings and provide the basis for our modeling efforts. We found evidence for a recollection LSE in raw measures of responding, with memory performance also benefiting from reinstatement of perceptual characteristics at test. However, large differences in the hits between the lists were accompanied by small differences in false alarms, such that when d' is calculated, differences between the lists are not significant. We propose an account of the LSE whereby the actual effect of competition between items on the list is small, although present, and difficult to distinguish from large effects of bias due to the strength manipulations. We argue that our findings provide support for a mechanistic explanation of LSE that is based on competition of source activation and changes in the thresholds for responses.

Attention↗
PubMed2001

On the dominance of whole-word knowledge in reading aloud.

The localist dual-route model of visual word recognition assumes a routine that addresses the pronunciation of all words known to the reader (the lexical-semantic pathway) and another routine, operating in parallel, that assembles pronunciations on the basis of sublexical spelling-sound correspondences. The present experiment exploits the exception effect (in which words that are atypical in terms of their spelling-sound correspondences are named more slowly than typical ones) because it is considered a marker of the joint operation of these two routines. Participants named high- and low-frequency regular and exception words that were repeated across two blocks of trials. The widely reported interaction between regularity and word frequency is present in Block 1 but is reduced in magnitude in Block 2. DRC, an implemented dual-route model, simulates the data. Taken in conjunction with other reports, the results provide further evidence for a double dissociation between addressed and assembled routines and are consistent with the view that skill in recognizing printed words known to the reader reflects the dominance of orthographic over phonological processing.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Feedback effects on cost-benefit learning in perceptual categorization.

Two experiments were conducted in which the effects of different feedback displays on decision criterion learning were examined in a perceptual categorization task with unequal cost-benefits. In Experiment 1, immediate versus delayed feedback was combined factorially with objective versus optimal classifier feedback. Immediate versus delayed feedback had no effect. Performance improved significantly over blocks with optimal classifier feedback and remained relatively stable with objective feedback. Experiment 2 used a within-subjects design that allowed a test of model-based instantiations of the flat-maxima (von Winterfeldt & Edwards, 1982) and competition between reward and accuracy (Maddox & Bohil, 1998a) hypotheses in isolation and of a hybrid model that incorporated assumptions from both hypotheses. The model-based analyses indicated that the flat-maxima model provided a good description of early learning but that the assumptions of the hybrid model were necessary to account for later learning. An examination of the hybrid model parameters indicated that the emphasis placed on accuracy maximization generally declined with experience for optimal classifier feedback but remained high, and fairly constant for objective classifier feedback. Implications for cost-benefit training are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Effects of exact and category repetition in true and false recognition memory.

Two experiments used the distinction between remembering and knowing to investigate the effects of exact and category repetition in recognition memory. In Experiment 1, exact repetition enhanced remember responses but had no reliable effect on know responses. In Experiment 2, category repetition enhanced correct know responses but had no effect on correct remember responses. Category repetition also increased false positive remember and know responses. It is argued that exact repetition influences the recollection component of recognition memory via the creation of multiple episodic traces, each of which is potentially capable of supporting a remember response, whereas category repetition influences the familiarity component of recognition memory by enhancing the fluency with which test items are processed.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Pigeon reaction time, Hick's law, and intelligence.

Pigeons' choice reaction times (RTs) increased as a linear function of log2 number of potential target stimuli (Experiments 1-3), as would be predicted by Hick's law. The values of intercepts and slopes decreased with training (Experiments 2 and 3) and with differential reinforcement of short RTs under percentile reinforcement contingencies (Experiment 3). RT functions obtained from human subjects were also consistent with Hick's law, but slopes for pigeons were significantly lower than those for humans (Experiments 4 and 5). These results extend the generality of Hick's law to pigeons but are inconsistent with Jensen's claim that the parameters of the Hick function are related to intelligence.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Relation and lexical priming during the interpretation of noun-noun combinations.

This research indicates that recent exposure to a similar combination (e.g., oil moisturizer or surgery treatment) influences the processing of a subsequent combination (e.g., oil treatment) by increasing the availability of the lexical entries for the modifier and head noun, and by altering the availability of the relation used to link the two nouns. The amount of lexical and relational priming obtained depends on whether the modifier or head noun is in common between the prime and target. The head noun prime yields more lexical priming than does the modifier prime and this finding suggests that the head noun is more strongly activated than the modifier. In contrast, relation priming is obtained only from the modifier prime and this finding is consistent with the CARIN theory (C. L. Gagné & E. J. Shoben, 1997) but inconsistent with schema-based theories of conceptual combination (e.g., G. L. Murphy, 1988; E. J. Wisniewski, 1996).

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Proactive interference, accessibility bias, and process dissociations: valid subjective reports of memory.

Proactive interference was assessed with a variant of the process-dissociation procedure, which separates effects of habit (accessibility bias) and recollection (discriminability). In three cued-recall experiments, proactive interference was shown to be an effect of bias rather than an effect on actual remembering. Divided attention, age, and study duration selectively influenced the recollection parameter, whereas training probability selectively influenced the habit parameter. Furthermore, in Experiments 2 and 3, subjective reports of remembering were highly correlated with, and nearly identical to, objective estimates of recollection gained from the process-dissociation procedure. The authors discuss the relevance of the results to theories of proactive interference and argue that older adults' greater susceptibility to interference effects is sometimes caused by an inability to recollect rather than by an inability to inhibit a preponderant response.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

High-level reasoning and base-rate use: do we need cue-competition to explain the inverse base-rate effect?

Previous accounts of the inverse base-rate effect (D. L. Medin & S. M. Edelson, 1988) have revolved around the concept of cue-competition. In this article, the authors propose that high-level reasoning in the form of an eliminative inference mechanism may contribute to the effect. A quantitative implementation of this idea demonstrates that it has the power by itself to produce the pattern of base-rate effects in the Medin and Edelson (1988) design. Four predictions are derived that contradict the predictions by attention to distinctive input (ADIT; J. K. Kruschke, 1996), up to date the most successful account of the inverse base-rate effect. Results from 3 experiments disconfirm the predictions by ADIT and demonstrate the importance of high-level reasoning in designs of the Medin and Edelson kind. Implications for the interpretation of the inverse base-rate effect and the attention-shifting mechanisms presumed by ADIT are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Effects of dividing attention on the memory-block effect.

S. M. Smith and D. R. Tindell (1997) reported that prior study of words that are orthographically similar to the solutions of test word fragments (e.g., studying ANALOGY and completing the fragment A_L _ _GY, whose solution is ALLERGY) reduced the fragment completion rate relative to a baseline condition in which unrelated words were studied. They called this effect the memory-block effect. In the present experiment, the authors replicated this effect using a larger set of materials than that used by S. M. Smith and D. R. Tindell. The authors also found that dividing attention at study eliminated the memory-block effect. This pattern mimicked the effect of dividing attention on recognition memory but differed from the effect on repetition priming effects. The authors suggest that the memory-block effect is driven by a mechanism different from that responsible for producing repetition priming effects in an implicit fragment completion test.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Descartes's blind man revisited: bimanual triangulation of distance using static hand-held rods.

Analogous to binocular convergence, we tested Descartes's proposal that a blind person could triangulate distances using crossed hand-held rods by sensing hand separation and wrist angles. In Experiment 1, 22 participants judged distances to loci at 4 distances, 18-36 in. (45.7-91.4 cm), at 5 eccentricities, 0-12 in. (0-30.5 cm) left and right of center. Participants reliably differentiated and scaled distances. The median individual multiple correlation (actual distances and eccentricities vs. judged distances; nonlinear with eccentricity) was .91 (range, .75 to .95; group R = .98). In Experiment 2, 2 experienced observers judged 7 distances, 30-66 in. (76.2-167.6 cm) at 7 eccentricities, 0-18 in. (0-45.7 cm) left and right. Results replicated those of Experiment 1, with nonlinear multiple Rs of .97 and .99 for the 2 participants. Bimanual triangulation supported reliable distance judgments, comparable to binocular distance perception. No evidence of perceptual learning was found.

Adult↗