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PubMed1988

Effect of dietary energy intake on tubular reabsorption of urea in sheep.

The aim of the experiment was to determine the effect of dietary energy intake on renal urea excretion in sheep with different nitrogen intakes. The control sheep, with a high nitrogen and energy intake, were given a daily feed dose of 21.18 g N and 15.2 MJ digestible energy (DE). The two experimental groups, with an equal, low nitrogen intake, were given diets with a different energy content. The high energy diet contained 3.63 g N and 14.18 MJ DE, the low energy diet 3.4 g N and 6.44 MJ DE. After nine weeks' adaptation to the diets, renal functions were measured by a standard clearance technique. It was found that, under stable urine flow conditions, both groups given the low nitrogen diet had a significantly lower glomerular filtration rate, fractional urea excretion and total urea excretion. A reciprocal comparison of these two groups showed that fractional urea excretion by the sheep with a high energy intake was significantly lower than in the group with a low energy intake. There were no differences in the glomerular filtration rate. A raised dietary energy intake in the presence of a low nitrogen intake caused marked natriuresis and kaliuresis. The results indicate that a raised dietary energy intake can be a significant factor in potentiating the renal effect of urea retention in sheep with a low nitrogen intake.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Effect of short-term energy intake level and exercise on oxygen consumption in men.

The influence of short-term energy intake and cycle exercise on oxygen consumption in response to a 1.5 MJ test meal was investigated in ten young, adult men. On the morning after a previous day's "low-energy" intake (LE regimen) of 4.5 MJ, the mean resting oxygen consumption increased by 0.7 ml X kg-1 X min-1 after the test meal (P less than 0.025). After a "high-energy" intake (HE regimen) of 18.1 MJ, the resting measurement was unchanged (+0.4 ml X kg-1 X min-1) after the meal (n.s.). These trends are the reverse of what would be expected if oxygen consumption in response to feeding is a factor in the acute control of body weight. The mean fasting oxygen consumption during cycle exercise at 56% of VO2max (constant work) for both LE and HE prior intakes was not different at 31.1 ml X kg-1 X min-1. Oxygen consumption during exercise increased after feeding by 0.5 ml X kg-1 X min-1 on the LE regimen (n.s.) and decreased by 1.2 ml X kg-1 X min-1 on the HE regimen (n.s.). These results are also the reverse of what would be expected if oxygen consumption in response to exercise is related to short-term energy intake.

Body Weight↗

PubMed2006

Does alcohol stimulate appetite and energy intake?

It has been anecdotally suggested that alcohol stimulates appetite and so increases energy intake in people who have poor appetite. This review sought to systematically review the evidence for this practice, using the mini-review approach (Griffiths, 2002). Among the eight studies reviewed, only one showed a significant difference in appetite ratings between the alcohol and no alcohol preload. However, significant differences were found in energy intake following a high-dose alcohol preload as opposed to a no-alcohol preload, in three out of the eight studies reviewed. One further study reported an increase in energy intake after the alcohol preload but this failed to reach statistical significance. In conclusion, the effect of alcohol on appetite appears largely unsubstantiated. Alcohol's effect on energy intake does appear significant, but further research is necessary owing to small sample sizes.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Impact of interviewer's body mass index on underreporting energy intake in overweight and obese women.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if overweight and obese women provide more accurate reports of their energy intake by 1) in-person recall with an obese interviewer, 2) in-person recall with a lean interviewer, or 3) telephone recall with an unknown interviewer. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Eighty-eight overweight and obese women participated in this study. Subjects completed one telephone-administered multiple-pass 24-hour recall (MP24R) with an unknown interviewer and were then randomly assigned to an in-person MP24R with either a lean or obese interviewer to gather reported energy intake (rEI). Basal metabolic rate (BMR) was measured using a Deltrac monitor, and physical activity (EEPA) was estimated using a Caltrac accelerometer. Therefore, estimated energy expenditure was determined by: estTEE = (BMR + EEPA) x 1.10. RESULTS: No significant differences were found between the two in-person interview modes for subject age, weight, body mass index, percentage of body fat, total energy expenditure, rEI, and misreporting of energy intake. In-person recall data were combined for comparison with the telephone recalls. No significant difference was found between the in-person and telephone recalls for rEI and misreporting. Mean reported energy intake was significantly lower than estimated total energy expenditure for the telephone recalls and combined (lean and obese modes) in-person recalls. CONCLUSIONS: This study found that interviewer body mass index had no impact on self-reported energy intake during an in-person MP24R, and that telephone recall data were comparable with in-person recalls. Underreporting was a widespread problem ( approximately 26%) for all modes in this sample.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Improving Preschoolers' self-regulation of energy intake.

BACKGROUND: Children exhibit individual differences in their ability to self-regulate energy intake. Feeding strategies that focus on external signals, like the time of day or amount of food left on a plate, tend to diminish children's ability to respond to internal cues of hunger and fullness. OBJECTIVES: We investigated whether children could be taught to focus on internal cues of hunger and satiety, and consequently improve their self-regulation of energy intake. We explored whether parents' eating behaviors and adiposity were related to their children's self-regulation skills and adiposity. DESIGN: In a pretest and posttest design, preschoolers participated in single-meal protocols to assess their individual ability to self-regulate food intake. During a 6-week intervention period, children took part in individual and group activities designed to help them recognize internal cues. Parents completed questionnaires regarding adult dietary restraint and disinhibition. RESULTS: At baseline, we found a large individual variability in children's regulation: some children overate, some regulated accurately, and others underate. At baseline, children's eating related to their adiposity and to mothers' disinhibition: heavier children and children whose mothers' reported difficulty controlling food intake showed less evidence of self-regulation. Both overeaters and undereaters responded to the intervention, improving their ability to self-regulate, and children's eating was no longer significantly related to mother's eating. CONCLUSIONS: Children's disregulated energy intake is related to mothers' weight status and mothers' perceived control over eating. Cues can be provided that help children to focus on internal signals and improve their ability to self-regulate energy intake.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed1995

Blood urea and amino acid concentrations in pigs of two breed combinations as affected by energy intakes.

Forty-eight barrows (61 kg), 24 Yorkshire x Landrace (YL) and 24 YL x Duroc x Hampshire (YLDH), were used to evaluate the effect of six dietary ME levels on concentrations of plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) and free amino acids. All pigs consumed equal amounts of each nutrient, except for energy. As energy intakes increased from 12.42 to 35.01 MJ/d of ME (34 to 97% of NRC recommendations), ADG increased linearly (P < .001) and concentrations of PUN decreased linearly (P < .01) and quadratically (P < .05). There was a tendency (P = .09) for an interaction of breed combinations and energy intakes on ADG. In general, increasing energy intake decreased plasma concentrations of essential amino acids and increased plasma concentrations of nonessential amino acids. Exceptions were a lack of change in plasma lysine and glutamic acid, an increase in histidine, and decreases in tyrosine and aspartic acid. Concentrations of most plasma amino acids were similar between the two breed combinations, but 9 of 27 amino acids that were measured were different (P < .05) between the breed combinations. The linear response of ADG was probably attained through a relatively constant lean-to-fat deposition ratio in the body over the levels of ME intakes. The curvilinear decline of PUN to increasing energy intakes was probably because at low energy intakes, amino acids were oxidized to furnish energy for maintenance and at increasing energy intakes there was increasing accretion of body proteins.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed1983

The effects of high and low energy density diets on satiety, energy intake, and eating time of obese and nonobese subjects.

The concept of time-energy displacement is based on the hypothesis that unrefined complex carbohydrates of low energy density will prolong eating time and induce satiety at a low energy intake. The present study compared the effects of diets low in energy density and high in energy density on satiety, energy intake, and eating time among 20 obese and nonobese subjects. Each diet was served over a 5-day period, and subjects were allowed to eat to satiety. With equal acceptance ratings of the diets, satiety was reached on the diet low in energy density at a mean daily energy intake one-half that of the diet high in energy density (1570 versus 3000 kcal). Eating time was significantly longer on the diet low in energy density by an average of 33%/day. Obese and nonobese subjects were comparable in their satiety ratings, energy consumption, eating time, and food acceptance. These data support the concept of time-energy displacement, which should therefore have applicability to the treatment and prevention of obesity.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

The importance of ingestion rates for estimating food quality and energy intake.

Testing ecological or socioecological models in primatology often requires estimates of individual energy intake. It is a well established fact that the nutrient content (and hence the energy content) of primate food items is highly variable. The second variable in determining primate energy intake, i.e., the ingestion rate, has often been ignored, and few studies have attempted to estimate the relative importance of the two predictors. In the present study individual ingestion rates were measured in two ecologically very different populations of Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) at Jodhpur, India, and Ramnagar, Nepal. Protein and soluble sugar concentrations in 50 and 100 food items. respectively, were measured using standardized methods. Variation in ingestion rates (gram of dry matter per minute) was markedly greater among food items than among langur individuals in both populations, but did not differ systematically among food item categories defined according to plant part and age. General linear models (GLMs) with ingestion rate, protein, and soluble sugar content explained 40-80% of the variation in energy intake rates (kJ/min). The relative importance of ingestion rates was either similar (Ramnagar) or much greater (Jodhpur) than the role of sugar and/or protein content in determining the energy intake rates of different items. These results may impact socioecological studies of variation in individual energy budgets, investigations of food choice in relation to chemical composition or sensory characteristics, and research into habitat preferences that measures habitat quality in terms of abundance of important food sources. We suggest a definition of food quality that includes not only the amount of valuable food contents (energy, vitamins, and minerals) and the digestibility of different foods, but also the rate at which the food can be harvested and processed. Such an extended definition seems necessary because time may constrain primates when feeding competition is intense and foraging is risk-prone.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Energetic efficiency during pregnancy in mice fed ad libitum or pair-fed to the normal energy intake of unmated animals.

The energetic efficiency of pregnant mice pair-fed to the ad libitum energy intake of unmated mice or given unrestricted access to food was investigated. Mice were divided into three groups of similar mean body weight, and two groups were then mated, with the third serving as unmated controls. After d 19 of pregnancy the energy content of all three groups was determined, together with the energy content of the food and feces. Both groups of pregnant mice showed a considerable increase in body weight but the weight gain of the pair-fed group was less than that of the mice fed ad libitum. There was a substantial difference in energy gain and gross efficiency between the two pregnant groups, both parameters being almost zero in the pair-fed mice. Only the pregnant mice fed ad libitum showed a higher energy gain and a higher gross efficiency than the nonpregnant mice, and approximately half of the extra energy intake of the pregnant mice fed ad libitum was deposited. The difference in energy gain between the ad libitum-fed and pair-fed pregnant groups was entirely accounted for by differences in maternal energy stores; there was no difference in the number of fetuses nor their energy density. It is concluded from the present study that there is no increase in overall energetic efficiency in pregnant mice restricted to the normal energy intake of nonpregnant animals; the increase in gross efficiency seen in pregnant mice fed ad libitum in associated with their increased energy intake.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗

PubMed1999

Energy intake and expenditure of free-living, pregnant Colombian women in an urban setting.

BACKGROUND: This study examined the components of energy balance in poor, free-living pregnant women living in an urban setting of a developing country. OBJECTIVES: We tested the following hypotheses: 1) energy intake increases in pregnancy and is greater than when nonpregnant and nonlactating (NPNL), 2) basal metabolic rate (BMR) increases in pregnancy and the increase is positively correlated with prepregnancy fatness, and 3) energy expenditure in activity decreases in pregnancy and is lower than in NPNL women. DESIGN: Pregnant women were studied at 14.8 +/- 3.4 (n = 40), 25.0 +/- 3.2 (n = 54), and 34.9 +/- 2.4 (n = 43) wk gestation, and NPNL women at baseline (n = 114) and at 3 (n = 103) and 6 (n = 93) mo. Energy intake was measured by using estimated diet records and energy expenditure by using the flex heart rate method. Time allocation in physical activity was assessed by observation. RESULTS: In pregnant women, body weight, BMR, and energy intake increased but total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) did not change significantly. There were no significant changes in time allocation to selected activities except for lying down. In comparison with NPNL control subjects, women in late pregnancy had higher energy intakes and BMRs. Values for TDEE were not significantly different, but pregnant women expended less energy in activity and allocated more time to 2 energy-saving activities and less time to 2 energy-demanding activities. CONCLUSION: A decrease in energy expenditure in activity and changes in time allocation are important ways in which pregnant women meet the energy demands of pregnancy.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Evaluating nurses' knowledge and patients energy intake after intervention.

The aims of this study were to describe and assess nutritionally at-risk patients' energy intake and nurses' knowledge and opinions of patients' need of energy during their hospital stay, before and after training and education. The effects of the intervention were evaluated by using a questionnaire, answered by the nurses before and after the intervention, and indirectly by measuring the patients' nutritional outcome, using a nutritional assessment form. A total of 230 matched patients and 171 nurses (86 before the intervention and 85 after) participated in the study. After the education, results indicated that a greater number of patients received increased levels of energy intake, an increased average intake of energy, and more dietary supplements. Nurses' knowledge about the content of energy in a standard portion of food had increased, and they found it easier to assess patients' need of energy. After the education, more nurses had the opinion that well-educated nurses in nutrition make it easier to motivate patients to reach a sufficient intake of energy.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Energy intake & resting metabolic rate of young Indian men & women.

Energy intake, body weight and resting metabolic rate (RMR) were measured on seven days consecutively, in 20 men and 14 women on ad libitum food intake under free-living conditions. These measurements were repeated in 8 men and 9 women twice with an interval of two months. Mean energy intake (EI) as measured by 'Weightment' method, was 2820 +/- 577 kcal/d in men and 1611 +/- 147 kcal/d in women. EI showed significant differences between weeks (P less than 0.01, CV = 13.1% in men and 9.5% in women) and between subjects (P less than 0.05, CV = 13.7% in men and 9.8% in women). Intra individual variance contributed up to 60 to 70 per cent of the total variance in EI in both the groups. RMR measured by using Oxylog, varied between the three periods (CV = 6% in men and 5.9% in women) and between subjects (CV = 5.7% in men and 12.3% in women). Mean RMR of both men and women was lower than the predicted value by FAO/WHO/UNU equation. Estimate of mean 24 h energy expenditure, using activity diary and factorial method, in the first round was 2458 +/- 144 kcal in men and 1655 +/- 172 in women, resulting in an energy balance of 308 kcal in men and -44 kcal/d in women. The pattern of activity remained the same in the three rounds for both groups. There were no significant changes in weight (CV-1.6%) or per cent body fat during the study period (P greater than 0.1).

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Body weight changes and basal metabolic rates of rural Beninese women during seasons with different energy intakes.

Seasonal influences on the energy balance were studied in rural Beninese women. The average body weight of 130 women showed significant seasonal changes. The lowest average weight, reached in the pre-harvest period in June, was 1.15 +/- 1.27 kg lower than the average weight in the post-harvest period in August. This response was not uniform however: while well-nourished women with a BMI of more than 23 at the beginning of the study showed a marked weight loss in the pre-harvest period, thin women with a BMI of less than 18 did not. Energy intake was studied in a sub-group of 18 women and found to vary between 1550 kcal/day (6485 kJ/day) in May-June to 1900 kcal/day (7950 kJ/day) in March-April. In the pre-harvest period there was a reduction in physical activity. BMR (n = 17) remained at a constant level of about 1330 kcal/day (5556 kJ day) throughout the year.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2004

Activity pattern, energy intake and obesity among Nigerian urban market women.

Activity pattern, energy intake and body mass index (BMI) were studied in a group of 232 women aged 19-65 years. The subjects were selected from five major markets in Abeokuta Township using a systematic random sampling technique. With the aid of a structured questionnaire and 24-h diet recall, information was collected on socio-demographic characteristics and the food and nutrient intake of the subjects. Information on the activity pattern was collected by recall and random spot observation methods. The result indicated that the majority (61%) of the respondents spent a total of 16 h on both domestic and market activities. An average of 11.5 h was spent in the market on predominantly sedentary activities. The mean energy intake of the women was 3701 kcal (15.4 MJ), which constituted about 164% of the recommended dietary allowance. Roots and tubers, cereals and legume form the major source of nutrients; while fried foods featured prominently in the menu. Eighty-nine women (38.4%) have a BMI within the healthy range of 18.5-25, while a total of 136, representing 58.6%, have a BMI greater than 25. A total of 66 women, representing 48.5% of the 136 women whose BMI was above 25, have a BMI in excess of 30 and are classified as obese. Both the energy intake and activity pattern of the respondents correlated positively with the BMI. This study has established a high risk of obesity among urban market women in Nigeria.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Dietary determinants of energy intake and weight regulation in healthy adults.

Until recently, the percentage of energy from dietary fat has been considered a primary determinant of body fatness. This review covers recent studies from our laboratory that challenge this notion. High and low fat diets matched for energy density, palatability and fiber resulted in similar mean voluntary energy intakes over 9 d; analysis of the individual foods in these diets showed that energy density and palatability were significant determinants of energy intake, independent of fat content. Path analysis further revealed that the influence of energy density on energy intake was in part direct, and in part indirect and mediated by palatability. In another study, dietary variety within food groups was shown to be an important predictor of body fatness, and the direction of the association depended on which food groups provided the variety, i.e., the variety of sweets, snacks, condiments, entrees and carbohydrates consumed was positively associated with body fatness, whereas the variety of vegetables was negatively associated. Last, a study of restaurant food and body fatness showed that the frequency of consumption of restaurant food was positively associated with body fatness, independent of education level, smoking status, alcohol intake and physical activity. Restaurant meals tend to be high in fat and low in fiber, and thus energy dense. Restaurants also typically serve a variety of palatable foods in large portions. The increasing variety of high energy foods available and the increasing proportion of household income spent on foods consumed away from home may help explain the U.S. national rising prevalence of obesity.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Energy intake and weight gain of very low birthweight babies fed raw expressed breast milk.

The energy intake and weight gain of low birthweight infants (under 1500 g) fed expressed breast milk were measured. Between the second and fourth weeks of life the mean energy intake was 577 kJ (138 kcals)/kg/day and the mean weekly increase in weight 119 g/week. Feeding energy-rich hind milk to two babies increased their energy intake but had little effect on their rate of weight gain. There appeared to be no correlation between energy intake and weight gain, probably owing to variation in the absorption of nutrients from expressed breast milk. This study forms a basis for a comparison of weight gain in babies fed alternative regimens of artificial milks.

Aging↗

PubMed1992

Comparison of equations for predicting the metabolisable energy intake of laying pullets.

1. The accuracy of equations to predict metabolisable energy intake of laying hens was compared using a random sample of the data set of Marsden and Morris (1987). 2. The equation of Pesti et al. (1992) was found to be significantly better at predicting metabolisable energy intake than the equations of Byerly (1941), Emmans (1974), Byerly et al. (1980), and the National Research Council (1984) when equation residual mean square errors were tested. 3. The equation of Pesti et al. (1992) had the highest coefficient of determination (R2), the smallest average residual, and smallest mean square error. The NRC equation predicted the average metabolisable energy intake best, indicating that over- and under-predictions offset each other. 4. The equations of Emmans (1974) and Pesti et al. (1992) were essentially without bias across temperature zones: less than 20, greater than = 20 less than 25, greater than = 25 less than 30, and greater than = 30 degrees C. The equation of Byerly (1941) over-predicted below 25 and above 30 degrees C, but under-predicted between 25 and 30 degrees C. The equation of Byerly et al. (1980) under-predicted below 30 degrees C while the NRC (1984) equation under-predicted above 20 degrees C.

Animals↗

PubMed1975

Influence of varying energy intake on nitrogen balance in men on two levels of protein intake.

Effect of changing energy levels of the diet at constant protein intakes on nitrogen balances in five young men were studied at two levels of protein--40 and 60 g. Nitrogen balance increased with increase in energy intake at both levels of protein. This was brought about primarily by a reduction in urinary nitrogen excretion. Energy levels at which nitrogen equilibrium was obtained were different for the two levels of protein intake. At 40 g protein intake the energy intake required for zero nitrogen balance was 2,249 kcal, while it was 2,066 kcal when the diet provided 60 g protein.

Adult↗