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PubMed1995

Infant dreaming and fetal memory: a possible explanation of sudden infant death syndrome.

During rapid-eye-movement sleep, when we dream, the brain is thought to be processing stored memory. The memory of a newborn infant is dominated by its fetal experience, and the infant is likely to dream about its life in the womb. Research with lucid (or conscious) dreaming has shown that dream images are supported by the corresponding body actions, using those muscles which remain active during rapid-eye-movement sleep. We suggest that sudden infant death syndrome or cot death may be a result of an infant dreaming about its life (or memory) as a fetus. In the course of that dream, since a fetus does not breathe (in the usual sense) the infant may cease to breathe and may die. This simple hypothesis is consistent with all of the known facts about sudden infant death syndrome (pathological and epidemiological), such as the age at death curve (the observed exponential decay and possibly the peak at 2-3 months), the higher risk with the prone sleeping position (but not excluding the supine position), and the observed climatic variation (seasonal and regional) in the incidence of sudden infant death syndrome. Many of these well-established facts have no other known explanation and other theories can generally only account for a few of the known facts about sudden infant death syndrome. Our hypothesis is also supported by recent findings that, as a group, sudden infant death syndrome infants have a higher proportion of rapid-eye-movement sleep, and also that they have an average higher heart rate (corresponding to possible fetal dreams) but only during rapid-eye-movement sleep.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Age Factors↗

PubMed1996

Selenate fortification of infant formulas improves the selenium status of preterm infants.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether selenate fortification of infant formula would improve the selenium status of relatively well, growing, preterm infants during the first 12 wk of enteral feeding. A high-selenium group (n = 7, mean body weight = 1312 g) received selenate-fortified preterm and full-term infant formulas containing 0.36 and 0.22 mumol Se/L, respectively, and a low-selenium group (n = 10, mean body weight = 1262 g) received non-selenium-fortified preterm and full-term infant formulas containing 0.12 and 0.11 mumol Se/L, respectively. There were no significant differences in growth between the two groups throughout the study. The high-selenium group had significantly greater mean selenium intakes than did the low-selenium group from weeks 2 to 12. Plasma selenium concentrations decreased over the study period in the low-selenium group. Plasma selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase activity was greater in the high-selenium group at week 12 only. Red blood cell selenium concentrations decreased over time in both groups and were significantly greater in the high-selenium group at weeks 4, 8, and 12. Plasma selenium concentrations were significantly correlated with plasma glutathione peroxidase activity for all infants on study day 1 and at weeks 4 and 12. Selenium intake of all infants was significantly correlated with plasma glutathione peroxidase activity at 12 wk. Selenate fortification of infant formulas can improve the selenium status of preterm infants. Current selenium contents of infant formulas and recommendations for dietary intakes of selenium for some preterm infants may be inadequate.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed2001

Extent of thermal processing of infant formula affects copper status in infant rhesus monkeys.

BACKGROUND: Infant rhesus monkeys are excellent models in which to study the effect of infant formulas on trace element absorption and status. Infants fed powdered formula from birth exhibit normal growth and have blood variables similar to those of breast-fed infants. OBJECTIVES: The objectives were to evaluate the effects of feeding ready-to-feed (RTF) formulas exposed to different heat treatments to infant monkeys, and, for one of these formulas, to compare the effect of fortification with 2 iron concentrations. DESIGN: From birth to age 5 mo, infant monkeys (n = 6/group) were fed one of the following formulas exclusively: 1) 12 mg Fe/L processed in cans (RTF-12), 2) formula in glass bottles with 12 mg Fe/L and manufactured by an ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) process (UHT-12), or 3) formula manufactured by a standard thermal process (STP), containing either 8 (STP-8) or 12 (STP-12) mg Fe/L. All formulas had similar copper concentrations (0.6 mg Cu/L). Anthropometric measures and venous blood samples were taken monthly. RESULTS: Weight and length gain did not differ among groups; however, the STP-12 group weighed less than the UHT-12 group at ages 2, 4, and 5 mo. Hemoglobin values were significantly lower in the RTF-12 group than in all other groups at ages 4 and 5 mo and serum ferritin was lower in the RTF-12 group than in the STP-12 group at age 5 mo. Copper status was lower in STP-12 infants than in STP-8 infants. There was a progressive and significant decline in plasma copper, ceruloplasmin, and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase activity in infants fed canned formula (RTF-12). Furthermore, coat color changed from normal brown to silver. These outcomes suggest that the canned formula induced copper deficiency in infant monkeys. CONCLUSIONS: Excessive heat treatment of formula can have a pronounced negative effect on copper status. High iron concentrations did not improve iron status but may adversely affect copper status.

Animals↗

PubMed1983

Effect of neonatal complications in premature infants on early parent-infant interactions.

A total of 184 infants in a neonatal intensive care unit with birthweights less than 1501 g were rated daily on a Morbidity Scale covering the 20 most common diseases and pathophysiological states in neonatology, the severity of each condition being rated on a scale of 0 to 3. To measure the impact of various degrees of complications on parental caretaking style, 20 infants with serious medical complications were paired with 20 infants who had a comparatively easy medical course. Both groups were observed during maternal visits to the hospital and again during a feeding three months after discharge home. Sick infants showed significantly less motor movements when ill but after recovery were similar to well infants of the same age. Parents visiting sick infants interacted far less with their infants than did parents of well babies, and this continued after recovery. It also persisted at home two months after the expected date of delivery. In addition, mothers whose infants had been seriously ill for less than 17 days interacted with them significantly more than mothers whose babies had been ill for over 35 days. While maternal background variables predicted the level of maternal activity with the comparatively well infants and those with short illnesses, they did not do so in the group of infants with long illnesses.

Female↗

PubMed2005

Quantitative real-time PCR assays to identify and quantify fecal Bifidobacterium species in infants receiving a prebiotic infant formula.

A healthy intestinal microbiota is considered to be important for priming of the infants' mucosal and systemic immunity. Breast-fed infants typically have an intestinal microbiota dominated by different Bifidobacterium species. It has been described that allergic infants have different levels of specific Bifidobacterium species than healthy infants. For the accurate quantification of Bifidobacterium adolescentis, Bifidobacterium angulatum, Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium breve, Bifidobacterium catenulatum, Bifidobacterium dentium, Bifidobacterium infantis, and Bifidobacterium longum in fecal samples, duplex 5' nuclease assays were developed. The assays, targeting rRNA gene intergenic spacer regions, were validated and compared with conventional PCR and fluorescent in situ hybridization methods. The 5' nuclease assays were subsequently used to determine the relative amounts of different Bifidobacterium species in fecal samples from infants receiving a standard formula or a standard formula supplemented with galacto- and fructo-oligosaccharides (OSF). A breast-fed group was studied in parallel as a reference. The results showed a significant increase in the total amount of fecal bifidobacteria (54.8% +/- 9.8% to 73.4% +/- 4.0%) in infants receiving the prebiotic formula (OSF), with a diversity of Bifidobacterium species similar to breast-fed infants. The intestinal microbiota of infants who received a standard formula seems to resemble a more adult-like distribution of bifidobacteria and contains relatively more B. catenulatum and B. adolescentis (2.71% +/- 1.92% and 8.11% +/- 4.12%, respectively, versus 0.15% +/- 0.11% and 1.38% +/- 0.98% for the OSF group). In conclusion, the specific prebiotic infant formula used induces a fecal microbiota that closely resembles the microbiota of breast-fed infants also at the level of the different Bifidobacterium species.

Bifidobacterium↗

PubMed2006

A population-based survey on infant feeding practice (0-2 years) in Hong Kong: breastfeeding rate and patterns among 3,161 infants below 6 months old.

The prevalence of breastfeeding for the first 6 months in infants has been low in Hong Kong since the 1970s. In order to develop effective breastfeeding policies and promotion programs, an appraisal of feeding practices and factors related to initiation and early cessation of breastfeeding is necessary. A survey with a population-based representative sample was conducted to determine social-demographic, personal and cultural factors that influenced decision, duration and practice of infant feeding among infants 0-24 months old. This paper focuses on infants below 6 months old to study factors related to decision, duration and practice of breastfeeding. In 1993, 7,298 healthy infants were recruited from 46 Maternal-and-Child-Health-Clinics (MCHC) throughout Hong Kong, of whom 3161 were below 6 months old. The mother reported her feeding decision, duration and practice in a questionnaire. Breastfeeding rate was found to be very low (8.4%) for infants below 6 months old. Only 50.9% infants were breastfed. Infant formulae were widely given among partially breastfed infants. 45% mothers were full-time employed. Most mothers were aware of the benefits of breastfeeding to the infants and themselves. Husbands (43.3%) were regarded the most influential on initiation and duration on breastfeeding. Restricted food varieties (54%), sore nipple and breast engorgement (67%), perceived home confinement (41.5%) and perceived inadequate milk supply (31.7%) were major concerns upon breastfeeding. Furthermore, 76.9% mothers turned to MCHC staff for advice when they encountered difficulties during breastfeeding. In conclusion, the survey collected population-based representative data on factors determining initiation and early cessation of breastfeeding in Hong Kong in 1993. The findings will serve as a cornerstone in understanding the evolution of breastfeeding practice in Hong Kong. It merits further study to investigate how the confounders interplay to modulate initiation, duration and patterns of breastfeeding.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Inconsistencies in coding of race and ethnicity between birth and death in US infants. A new look at infant mortality, 1983 through 1985.

OBJECTIVE: To ascertain the consistency of the racial and ethnic classification of US infants between birth and death and its impact on infant mortality rates. SUBJECTS: All US infants born from 1983 through 1985 who died within a year. DESIGN: We used the national linked birth/infant-death computer tape, augmented with information on infants' race and ethnicity at death, to compare the coding of race and Hispanic ethnicity at birth and at death. We also assessed infant mortality rates by race and ethnicity as defined (1) by the standard algorithm and (2) by the rule that, beginning in published tabulations for 1989, assigns newborns the race of their mothers. Finally, we estimated infant mortality rates based on consistent coding of race and ethnicity at birth and death. RESULTS: Inconsistency in the coding of race is low for whites (1.2%), greater for blacks (4.3%), and greatest for races other than white or black (43.2%). Most infants reclassified at death (87.3%) are classified as white at death. Inconsistency in coding is lower for non-Hispanic whites (3.5%) and non-Hispanic blacks (3.3%) than for Hispanic populations (30.3%). Compared with the standard algorithm for calculation of infant mortality, consistent definition at birth and death produces rates 2.1% lower for whites, and higher for all other groups--3.2% for blacks, 46.9% for American Indians, 33.3% for Chinese, 48.8% for Japanese, 78.7% for Filipinos, and 8.9% for Hispanics. CONCLUSIONS: The coding of race and ethnicity of infants at birth and death is remarkably inconsistent, with substantial impact on the estimation of infant mortality rates. A need exists to reconsider the nature and definition of race and ethnicity in public health.

Ethnicity↗

PubMed1988

Infant mortality increase despite high access to tertiary care: an evolving relationship among infant mortality, health care, and socioeconomic change.

In this study, the determinants of an apparent increase in the infant mortality rate of an urban population with high access to tertiary neonatal care are reviewed. For a 4-year period (1980 to 1983), all infant deaths (n = 422) of the 32,329 births to residents of the City of Boston were analyzed through linked vital statistics data and a review of medical records. A significant increase in the infant mortality rate occurred in 1982 due to increases in three components of the infant mortality rate: the birth rate of very low birth weight infants (less than 1,500 g), the neonatal mortality rate of normal birth weight infants (greater than or equal to 2,500 g), and the mortality rate of infants dying during the postneonatal period (28 to 365 days). These increases were associated with inadequate levels of prenatal care. Although transient, the impact of the observed alterations in these infant mortality rate components was enhanced by a more long-standing phenomenon: the stabilization of mortality rates for low birth weight infants. This stabilization allowed the increases in other component rates to be expressed more fully than in previous years. In this report a mechanism is shown whereby fully regionalized neonatal care ultimately may confer to the infant mortality rate a heightened sensitivity to socioeconomic conditions and levels of adequate prenatal care.

Birth Rate↗

PubMed1985

The rhythmic structure of mother-infant interaction in term and preterm infants.

The purpose of this study was to quantify social interaction rhythms in 3- and 5-month-old term and preterm infants and their mothers. Infant-mother dyads were videotaped in a 3-min face-to-face paradigm. For each second of the interaction, separate scores were assigned to infant and mother indicating levels of affective involvement, creating 2 180-sec time series. Spectral and cross-spectral techniques were used to quantify periodicities in each member of the dyad and to estimate the synchrony or coherence of interactional rhythms between each infant and mother. Results showed the existence of periodicities in the behavior of each infant and mother at 3 and 5 months, with most subjects showing spectral peaks between .022 and .10 Hz. Increases from 3 to 5 months in behavioral periodicities were found for infants and mothers as well as for the coherence between infant-mother dyads. Term dyads showed higher coherence than preterm dyads at both 3 and 5 months. Term infants more often led the interaction at both ages. These results were taken as evidence that behavioral periodicities, which may be biologically based, underlie early mother-infant interaction and provide a temporal structure for the organization of cognitive and affective experience. Differences in synchrony between term and preterm infants may explain later reported differences in language between these groups.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1983

Differences on Bayley's infant behavior record for a sample of high-risk infants and their controls.

3 groups of high-risk newborns and their controls were assessed at 92 weeks post-conceptional age using Bayley's Infant Behavioral Record (IBR). The 3 groups of high-risk infants were those who weighed 1,500 grams or less at birth and required no ventilator therapy, those weighing 1,500 grams or less at birth who required ventilator therapy, and newborns weighing more than 1,500 grams at birth who required ventilator therapy. Controls were healthy term infants matched for 7 socioeconomic and demographic variables. The first principal component of the IBR ratings for the 3 groups of high-risk infants and the controls were similar. All 3 groups of high-risk infants received less desirable IBR ratings on most items than their controls. In addition, there were some differences among high-risk groups; ventilated infants regardless of birth weight received the lowest ratings reflecting overall performance on the IBR, very low birthweight, ventilated newborns were more likely to receive ratings characterizing an overly active infant with a short attention span, and very low birth-weight, never-ventilated infants were most likely to be rated as happy but passive and delayed. The differences between the high-risk infants and controls in large part resulted from infants who were also delayed in terms of their mental and motor development.

Female↗

PubMed1982

Mother-infant interaction in premature and full-term infants.

The interactions of 16 premature and 17 full-term infants and their mothers were studied at 6, 8, 10, and 14 months of age. The infants were matched on sex, maternal age, parity, and social class. Premature infants vocalized less, played less, and were more fretful than full-term infants of the same chronological age but looked at objects and looked around their environment more. These differences, with the exception of vocalization, disappeared by 14 months. Mothers of premature infants demonstrated more caretaking and affectionate behavior toward their infants. With increasing age the differences between groups decreased. Premature dyads experienced as much interaction as full-term dyads, but premature mothers were not constant over the period under study in the amount of time they spend in the same room as their infants. Mothers responded to the developmental level of their infants. Premature infants behaved increasingly like full-term infants as they grew older.

Affect↗

PubMed1997

Home monitoring for infants at high risk for the sudden infant death syndrome.

The rate of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) In Israel is relatively low (0.5-0.9:1,000). Home cardiorespiratory monitoring (HM) is an accepted practice in infants at high risk for SIDS. We report our experience with 261 infants who were referred to our SIDS prevention program. They included: 52 preterm infants with apneas and bradycardias, 83 SIDS siblings (3 twins), 22 infants of drug-addicted mothers, and 104 infants after an idiopathic apparent life-threatening event (ALTE). HM was performed in 40 of 52 preterms, 38 of 83 SIDS siblings, all 22 infants of addicted mothers and 67 of 104 post-ALTE. All received 24 h/day medical and technical backup as well as emotional support, and were closely followed until 15 months of age. None of the 261 infants died. Five infants experienced six ALTEs that required resuscitative measures; another 28 infants had monitor alarms judged as real by the caregivers. The average duration of HM was 3.2 months (range 1-7). In 8 of 167 cases the parents stopped HM earlier than recommended, and in 34 of 167 cases (20%), parents continued HM beyond the time when discontinuation was recommended by the medical personnel. Among the caregivers, 85% found HM to be reassuring and stated that it helped them to conduct a normal life. We suggest that in our population, HM may have a favorable effect on family life. With close backup and support, most families will benefit from HM and will gain reassurance that will enable them to conduct normal life.

Home Care Services↗

PubMed1992

Feeding preterm infants a formula containing C20 and C22 fatty acids simulates plasma phospholipid fatty acid composition of infants fed human milk.

Thirty-four premature infants weighing less than 1500 grams at birth were fed preterm formula (formula), preterm infant formula manufactured to contain a balance of C20 and C22 omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids within the range characteristic of human milk (LCPE-formula) or their mothers' expressed breast milk (EBM). Blood samples were obtained during the first week of life and after 28 days of feeding to determine the effect of feeding C20 and C22 omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids on plasma lipids. Fatty acid analyses of red blood cell phospholipids indicated few differences between dietary treatment and age. Fatty acid content of plasma cholesterol esters indicated a high plasma cholesterol linoleate level for infants fed formula and a reduced content of C20 and C22 omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids. For infants fed the modified formula (LCPE-formula) the levels of 20:4 omega 6, 20:5 omega 3 and 22:6 omega 3 were higher than observed for the formula group and similar to those observed for infants fed EBM. By the fifth week of life, feeding the modified formula resulted in plasma phospholipid levels of C20 and C22 omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids similar to levels of C20 and C22 omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids found in infants fed EBM and significantly higher than levels characteristic of infants fed formula. It is concluded that infants fed LCPE-formula illustrate an overall balance between C20 and C22 omega 6 to omega 3 fatty acids in the plasma similar to that characteristic of infants fed human milk.

Fatty Acids↗

PubMed2004

Fetal infants: the fate of 4172 infants with birth weights of 401 to 500 grams--the Vermont Oxford Network experience (1996-2000).

OBJECTIVE: Improvement in the survival of extremely low birth weight infants requires that we evaluate the limits of our care and assess the impact of treatment on a population of infants who previously rarely survived. METHODS: A review was conducted of demographic and clinical data of infants who had birth weight 401 to 500 g and were entered in the Vermont Oxford Network Database between 1996 and 2000. RESULTS: A total of 4172 infants who weighed 401-500 g (mean gestational age: 23.3 +/- 2.1 weeks) were born at 346 participating centers. Overall, 17% survived until discharge. A total of 2186 (52%) died in the delivery room (DR), and 1986 (48%) were admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Compared with infants who died in the DR, infants who survived the DR and were admitted to the NICU were more likely to be female (58% vs 49%), to be small for gestational age (56% vs 11%), to have received prenatal steroids (61% vs 12%), and to have been delivered by cesarean section (55% vs 5%). Thirty-six percent of NICU admissions survived to discharge. Mean gestational age of the 690 NICU survivors was 25.3 +/- 2.0 weeks. These survivors experienced significant morbidity in the NICU. CONCLUSIONS: An appreciable number of these marginally viable fetal infants survive. They experienced a high rate of serious morbidities while in the NICU. There is very little information about long-term outcomes, as the medical and developmental status of few of these infants has been followed carefully. Parents should be made aware of the high incidence of serious problems, and concerted efforts should be made to follow the status of these infants.

Databases, Factual↗

PubMed1978

Postneonatal infant mortality in infants to a neonatal intensive care unit.

The postneonatal infant mortality (PNIM) of 2,205 infants admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit from January 1971 to December 1974 was 44 in 1,000 infants who survived to age 28 days. This rate is approximately ten times that of the general population. Congenital malformations (59%), infections (12%), sudden infant death syndrome (10%), and asphyxial brain damage (10%) were the most common causes of death. One third (26) of the infants remained in the hospital whereas two thirds (52) had been dismissed prior to death. All who remained in the hospital plus 36 who had been dismissed died of severe illnesses that were incompatible with prolonged survival. The remaining PNIM was 10 in 1,000 neonatal survivors. This rate is still twice that of the general population. These deaths occurred in infants who were apparently well at the time of dismissal and subsequent examinations. Sudden infant death syndrome and infections constituted the largest portion of this mortality. Factors contributing to mortality in this group were poor socioeconomic status and low birth weight. Maternal age, race, marital status, and neonatal illnesses including apnea were not significantly related. Factors that appear to be important in the birth of high-risk infants continued to be operative in the postneonatal period, and contribute to a high mortality in apparently normal infants dismissed from the neonatal intensive care unit.

Abnormalities, Multiple↗

PubMed2006

Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: the types of foods fed to Hispanic infants and toddlers.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the prevalence of breastfeeding and formula feeding, the age of introduction to specific foods, and the types of foods and beverages consumed by Hispanic infants and toddlers compared with similarly aged non-Hispanic infants and toddlers living in the United States. DESIGN: Descriptive and comparative analysis of dietary recall data and responses to specific interview questions, which were collected in the 2002 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study. Breastfeeding status, timing of introduction of complementary foods, percentage consuming foods from specific food groups, and the most frequently consumed fruits and vegetables by Hispanic and non-Hispanic children by age group (4-5 months, 6-11 months, 12-24 months). SUBJECTS: A national random sample of 371 Hispanic and 2,637 non-Hispanic infants and toddlers between the ages of 4 and 24 months. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: To test for differences between Hispanic and non-Hispanic children in the percentage who consumed a particular food item, we calculated percentages and standard errors in SUDAAN and 95% and 99% confidence intervals. The most frequently consumed fruits and vegetables were determined by tallying the percentage of infants and toddlers who consumed each specific fruit or vegetable on a given day. RESULTS: Although there were some similarities, the early flavor and food experiences of Hispanic infants were different from similarly aged non-Hispanic infants in several ways. Hispanic infants younger than 1 year of age were more likely to have ever been breastfed and those who were 4 to 5 months were more likely than non-Hispanics to be eating pureed baby foods on a daily basis. Although less likely to be eating non-infant cereals and baby food vegetables, 6- to 11-month-old Hispanics were more likely to be eating fresh fruits, fruit-flavored drinks, baby cookies, and foods such as soups, rice, and beans that are common in many Hispanic cultures. When fruits were introduced into the Hispanic child's diet, they were most commonly consumed fresh. This higher prevalence of being fed soups, rice, beans, and sweetened fruit-flavored drinks as well as tortillas was also observed among the 12- to 24-month-old toddlers. CONCLUSIONS: Dietetics professionals should be aware of the cultural differences in the foods fed to infants and toddlers that may contribute to the development of long-term food preferences and impact on nutrition. Understanding the factors that underlie food preferences is important if we are to develop evidence-based strategies to improve children's eating habits and lower their risks factors associated with obesity and other chronic diseases.

Bottle Feeding↗

PubMed1996

Natural history of somatic growth in infants born to women infected by human immunodeficiency virus. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the nature and magnitude of the effect of congenitally or perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection on somatic growth from birth through 18 months of age. STUDY DESIGN: Anthropometry was performed serially in 282 term infants born to HIV-infected women in a multicenter prospective natural history cohort study. Repeated measures analysis was used to compare z-score anthropometric indexes of weight-for-age, length-for-age, weight-for-length, and head circumference-for-age between infected and uninfected infants, with adjustment for covariates including infant gender; maternal education; prenatal alcohol, tobacco, and/or illicit drug exposure; and mean prenatal CD4+ T-lymphocyte count. A separate repeated measures model was used to assess the effect of infant zidovudine treatment on growth. RESULTS: Infants infected with HIV were an estimated average 0.28 kg lighter and 1.64 cm shorter than uninfected infants at birth, were 0.71 kg lighter and 2.25 cm shorter by 18 months of age, and had a sustained estimated average decrement of 0.70 to 0.75 cm in head circumference. Patterns of growth were similar in male and female infants. Infected infants had a progressive decrement in body mass index from birth through 6 months of age. Infection with HIV was associated with significant decrements across all standardized growth outcome measures after adjustment for covariates. Mean z scores were lower for weight by 0.612 (p < 0.001), for length by 0.735 (p < 0.001), for weight-for-length by 0.255 (p = 0.02), and for head circumference by 0.563 (p < 0.001) SD units compared with uninfected infants. Zidovudine treatment was not associated with improved growth. CONCLUSION: The effect of congenitally or perinatally acquired HIV infection on infant growth is one of early and progressive decrements in attained linear growth and growth in mass, early and sustained decrements in head growth, and marked early decrements in body mass index.

Body Height↗

PubMed1998

Infant affect and affect regulation during the still-face paradigm with mothers and fathers: the role of infant characteristics and parental sensitivity.

This laboratory study examined mothers' and fathers' sensitivity during face-to-face interactions with their infants as well as infants' affective and regulatory responses during mother-infant versus father-infant still face (SF). The degree to which infant gender and temperament as well as parental sensitivity predicted SF responses was also examined. Participants included 94 healthy, primarily White, middle-class 4-month-olds and their parents. Results indicated that mothers and fathers were equally sensitive toward their infants. Infants' affect and regulatory behaviors were also significantly stable across mother- and father-infant SF situations, although several differences in mean levels of regulation emerged. Finally, the extent to which exogenous and endogenous variables predicted infant SF responses differed as a function of which affect or regulatory variable was being examined and with which parent the infant was experiencing SF.

Adult↗