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First-language acquisition in adolescence: evidence for a critical period for verbal language development.

It has been hypothesized that there is a critical period for first-language acquisition that extends into late childhood and possibly until puberty. The hypothesis is difficult to test directly because cases of linguistic deprivation during childhood are fortunately rare. We present here the case of E.M., a young man who has been profoundly deaf since birth and grew up in a rural area where he received no formal education and had no contact with the deaf community. At the age of 15, E.M. was fitted with hearing aids that corrected his hearing loss to 35 dB, and he began to learn verbal Spanish. We describe his language development over the 4-year period since his acquisition of hearing aids and conclude that the demonstrates severe deficits in verbal comprehension and production that support the critical period hypothesis.

Adult↗

Characterising compensation. (Commentary on Ullman and Pierpont, "Specific language impairment is not specific to language: the procedural deficit hypothesis").

This article considers Ullman and Pierpont's Procedural Deficit theory of Specific Language Impairment (SLI). The theory represents an innovative attempt to fill the gap between brain and cognition in SLI, and has the potential to explain the non-linguistic as well as linguistic deficits seen in this disorder. The theory is reviewed with regard to: (1) the claims it makes on the domain-specificity of language structures; (2) the falsifiability conditions of the theory; (3) the level of detail at which compensatory processes are specified; and (4) from a computational perspective, whether the inferences that the theory draws from uneven behavioural impairments to underlying structural deficits are necessary ones.

Child↗

Phonology and children with specific language impairment: status of structural constraints in two languages.

Two studies are reported in which the phonological characteristics of preschool-age children with specific language impairment (SLI) are compared with those seen in younger normally developing children matched for mean length of utterance and consonant inventory size. The productions of both English-speaking and Italian-speaking children with SLI were more likely to deviate from the adult standard than the productions of the younger control children. In Italian, the children with SLI had more difficulty than the younger controls in the use of non-final weak syllables; in English, the children with SLI were poorer than the younger controls in the use of non-final weak syllables, word-final consonants, and word-final consonant clusters. These are the same phonological details that are required for several grammatical inflections and many function words in the two languages. However, the children with SLI were also less consistent than their younger compatriots in using consonants in structurally simple words. These findings provide evidence for the view that for many preschool-age children with SLI, phonological problems go beyond those that might be predicted on the basis of the children's short utterances and limited consonant inventories.

Child, Preschool↗

The influence of language exposure on lexical and syntactic language processing.

Previous literature has argued that proficient bilingual speakers often demonstrate monolingual-equivalent structural processing of language (e.g., the processing of structural ambiguities; Frenck-Mestre, 2002). In this paper, we explore this thesis further via on-line examination of the processing of syntactically complex structures with three populations: those who classify as monolingual native English speaker (MNES), those who classify as non-native English speakers (NNES), and those who calssify as bilingual native English speakers (BNES). On-line measures of processing of object-relative constructions demonstrated that both NNES and BNES have different patterns of performance as compared to MNES. Further, NNES and BNES speakers perform differently from one another in such processing. The study also examines the activation of lexical information in biasing contexts, and suggests that different processes are at work in the different type of bilinguals examined here. The nature of these differences and the implications for developing sensitive models of on-line language comprehension are developed and discussed.

Humans↗

Grammatical gender effects on cognition: implications for language learning and language use.

In 4 experiments, the authors addressed the mechanisms by which grammatical gender (in Italian and German) may come to affect meaning. In Experiments 1 (similarity judgments) and 2 (semantic substitution errors), the authors found Italian gender effects for animals but not for artifacts; Experiment 3 revealed no comparable effects in German. These results suggest that gender effects arise as a generalization from an established association between gender of nouns and sex of human referents, extending to nouns referring to sexuated entities. Across languages, such effects are found when the language allows for easy mapping between gender of nouns and sex of human referents (Italian) but not when the mapping is less transparent (German). A final experiment provided further constraints: These effects during processing arise at a lexical-semantic level rather than at a conceptual level.

Adult↗

Comparison of two reading feedback strategies in improving the oral and written language performance of children with language-learning disabilities.

Twelve school-age children with language-learning disabilities (LLD) participated in a study comparing the effects of two reading feedback strategies for improving their oral and written language performance. Children were matched for age, disability, gender, and general reading performance. Participants were assigned to one of three study groups, Treatment 1 (T1), Treatment 2 (T2), or Control (C). Children were pre- and posttested on standardized tests of reading and oral vocabulary. T1 and T2 participated in 6 weeks of reading intervention. T1 used traditional decoding-based feedback strategies, and T2 used meaning-based feedback strategies, termed Communicative Reading Strategies (CRS). Significant differences across groups were found for reading comprehension, oral reading, and expressive vocabulary measures. Pairwise comparisons indicated that T2 performed significantly better than T1 and C on reading comprehension at posttest. Though not reaching levels of significance, T2 made greater gains than T1 and C on oral reading and expressive vocabulary measures. Results are discussed with implications for using CRS (T2) with school-age poor readers.

Child↗

Arithmetic calculation, short-term memory, and language performance in children with specific language impairment: a 5-year follow-up.

A 5-year follow-up of the arithmetic calculation abilities of low-income children with specific language impairment (SLI) is reported. The performance of fourth- and fifth-grade children with SLI was compared with that of typically developing low-income peers and with younger, typically developing low-income children. Short-term memory, language, and arithmetic calculation abilities were assessed. Compared to their age-matched peers, the SLI group exhibited low scores on a number recall task, a marked difficulty with mathematical calculation under timed conditions, and numerous errors when retrieving rote math facts such as 7 x 6 =. Although children with SLI made more written calculation errors than their age-matched peers, they did not differ in the type of errors made. However, strategies used to solve written calculation differed among the groups. Rather than use automatic math fact retrieval, children with SLI were more likely to use counting strategies to solve calculation problems. These findings offer further evidence that children with SLI have difficulty with rote memory. The findings also document the real-world consequences of slow, inefficient memory retrieval in children with SLI.

Child↗

New trends in natural language processing: statistical natural language processing.

The field of natural language processing (NLP) has seen a dramatic shift in both research direction and methodology in the past several years. In the past, most work in computational linguistics tended to focus on purely symbolic methods. Recently, more and more work is shifting toward hybrid methods that combine new empirical corpus-based methods, including the use of probabilistic and information-theoretic techniques, with traditional symbolic methods. This work is made possible by the recent availability of linguistic databases that add rich linguistic annotation to corpora of natural language text. Already, these methods have led to a dramatic improvement in the performance of a variety of NLP systems with similar improvement likely in the coming years. This paper focuses on these trends, surveying in particular three areas of recent progress: part-of-speech tagging, stochastic parsing, and lexical semantics.

Algorithms↗

Inferential processing and story recall in children with communication problems: a comparison of specific language impairment, pragmatic language impairment and high-functioning autism.

An investigation is reported into the story comprehension abilities of four groups of children: those with typical specific language impairment (SLI-T), those with pragmatic language impairments who were not autistic (PLI), those with high-functioning autism (HFA) and typically developing controls. The story comprehension task required children to answer questions about the literal content of the story, as well as questions involving two types of inferences: text-connecting and gap-filling. The control children outscored the three clinical groups on story comprehension, but the group means of the clinical groups did not differ. However, categorical examination of the data revealed that children with pragmatic difficulties related to HFA were more likely to have specific inferencing deficits. Error analysis suggested that all children could make inferences, but these were not always relevant to the story context. This supports the notion of weak central coherence underlying deficits in inferencing. There were no group differences on story recall. However, there was a strong relationship between story comprehension and recall, in that those who had better comprehension tended to have better recall. It is concluded that comprehension aids recall by enabling the listener to build a more stable mental representation of the story. The pragmatic deficits seen in autism compromise this process.

Analysis of Variance↗

Teaching and learning speech and language therapy skills: the effectiveness of classroom as clinic in speech and language therapy student education.

BACKGROUND: Terms such as 'clinical intuition' have often been applied to the practice of speech and language therapy. Various authors have aimed to make the process of therapy practice more explicit, and it is argued that recently developed descriptive/analytic frameworks have the potential to engender the critical mindset necessary for student speech and language therapists to become good reflective practitioners, with the potential for enhancing clinical education. AIMS: To investigate whether and how aspects of clinical skills education could be usefully addressed in an academic, as opposed to a clinical, setting. The study aimed to address the question of whether use of an interaction analysis system, in conjunction with video observation, and 'practice simulation' in a teaching-learning programme could be shown to have a positive impact on: (1) students' perceptions of their own understanding and practice of therapy, and their perceptions of themselves as self-reflective practitioners; and whether (2) this was borne out by students' ability to observe and interpret therapeutic interaction, as measured by (i) an objective written assessment; (ii) an objective video observation assessment; and (iii) assessment of their abilities in clinical practice. METHODS & PROCEDURES: Thirty-six students from City University took part in an experimental, placebo-controlled study using a deferred intervention design. Assessments designed to reflect changes resulting from the teaching-learning curriculum were carried out pre- and post-intervention with experimental and control groups. Quantitative and qualitative results were obtained. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: The intervention programme was found to have had a significant impact on students' perceptions of their understanding of therapy, but not on their perceptions of their practice of therapy. The experimental group scored significantly better on a written assessment of 'interpretation of therapy interaction', but were no better than the control group on a 'Video observation' assessment. Owing to attrition and the poor quality of videos submitted for assessment, it was not possible to measure changes in actual clinical practice. Qualitative feedback from the teaching-learning programme suggests that students generally found the approach to be beneficial. CONCLUSIONS: While there were some encouraging results, it is still uncertain whether addressing the actual practice of therapy in an academic setting gives 'added value' to the work carried out on clinical placements. However, there is no doubt that bringing this type of programme under the umbrella of an academic institution would greatly increase the consistency of teaching and the range of experiences available to students.

Adult↗

Specific language impairment, theory of mind, and visual perspective taking: evidence for simulation theory and the developmental role of language.

Recent research has found that the acquisition of theory of mind (ToM) is delayed in children with specific language impairment (SLI). The present study used a battery of ToM and visual perspective taking (VPT) tasks to investigate whether the delayed acquisition of ToM in children with SLI is associated with delayed VPT development. Harris' (1992, 1996) simulation theory predicts that the development of VPT will be delayed. Participants were 20 children with SLI (M=62.9 months) and 20 typically developing children (M=61.2 months) who were matched for nonverbal ability, gender, and age. The results supported Harris' theory and a role for language in ToM and VPT development.

Child↗

The language of written language: an introduction to the special issue.

This special issue includes five articles dealing with selected aspects of writing disorders, crafted by key contributors to the literature on written language. Articles addressing definitional issues and diagnostic questions, assessment strategies, selected neurodevelopmental components of written expression, the manifestation of writing problems in children and young adults, direct intervention, training for elementary teachers in the early grades in the area of literacy, and brain-behavior linkages are presented. This introduction provides an overview of these articles tied to specific issues confronting the field of written language. Some thoughts and directions for the future are articulated.

Adult↗

Perception of place and secondary articulation contrasts in different syllable positions: language-particular and language-independent asymmetries.

This study investigated the perception of place and secondary articulation contrasts in different syllable positions by Russian and Japanese listeners. The consonants involved in the study were the Russian plain (velarized) and palatalized labial and coronal voiceless stops in syllable-initial and syllable-final positions at word boundaries. The findings revealed substantial asymmetries in the perception of the contrasts by both groups of listeners: With respect to positions, consonants in syllable-final position were characterized by lower correct identification rates and (less consistently) longer reaction time than the same consonants in syllable-initial position. Positional syllable position differences were accompanied by differences in segment-specific contexts. With respect to individual consonants, the palatalized labial /p(j)/ and the plain coronal /t/ showed a lower correct identification rate and smaller perceptual distance than the plain labial /p/ and the palatalized coronal /t(j)/. The results also showed some differences between Russian and Japanese listeners in the perception of the contrast. These differences can be explained by phonotactic differences between the two languages, as well as by differences in the phonetic realizations of the consonants. The results of the study provide evidence for the role of both universal and language-particular factors in speech perception.

Adult↗

[Oral language acquisition: relation and risk for written language].

The present study relates the acquisition of oral language to the development of writing in 236 children of a private school in the city of Porto Alegre, Brazil. The objective of this research was to identify non-linguistic factors involved in phonological acquisition and to describe the relation of phonological acquisition with alterations of writing. At the age of 6 years, kindergarten students were divided into 2 groups, based on the test of Phonological Evaluation of Children. In the follow-up, at 9 years of age, students were evaluated by means of Balanced Dictation and textual production. The comparison of results from case and control groups showed statistically significant difference as to the number of mistakes made in writing, pointing to the acquisition of oral language as a predictive factor for the development of spelling.

Brazil↗

A straight nasal septum and right unilateral hypertrophied inferior nasal turbinate, a very rare anatomical phenomenon, in skilled language translators: relevance to anomalous dominance, brain hemisphericity and second language acquisition.

Research on second language acquisition has recently focused on the concept of brain hemisphericity. Since the nasal cycle indexes brain hemisphericity and a deviated nasal septum itself affected by structural brain dominance may prevent nasal cycling, we investigated the presence of septal deviation and inferior turbinate hypertrophy in 11 expert translators. We found that 10 of the 11 subjects demonstrated both a straight nasal septum and right unilateral inferior turbinate hypertrophy, an extremely rare anatomical phenomenon. The one-tailed binomial test was extremely significant (p < .0000001). This anatomical phenomenon, which can be noninvasively checked in less than 30 seconds may predict excellence in second language acquisition.

Adult↗

Opportunities for using computers in speech and language therapy: a study of one language unit.

Whilst the use of information technology is increasing in importance as an aid to speech and language therapy, its introduction has so far been unsystematic. Systems analysis methodologies for assessing how information technology can best be employed have been developed for use in the business world. The present study used one such methodology--Checkland's soft systems--to investigate which aspects of the activities of one language unit were most likely to be improved or helped by the introduction of new technology. Such an approach was found to yield useful insights and several opportunities for increased computer use were revealed. However, it was also concluded that, to take maximum advantage of new technology, changes would need to be introduced and resources made available at a higher organisational level than that of the individual unit or department.

Child↗

Dissociation of reading strategies: letter-by-letter reading in the native language and normal reading in the learned language. A case study.

In letter-by-letter reading, which is typically observed in Dejerine's (1892) "pure alexia," oral reading seems to be mediated by the naming of the constituent letters of the printed sequence: reading time rises abnormally as a function of the number of letters of the target item. We describe a patient with fluent aphasia who showed the unusual pattern of letter-by-letter reading together with surface dyslexia in her native language (French) and apparently normal reading in the second, learned language (English). Thus, letter-by-letter reading should be considered as a description of a symptom rather than the consequence of a unique type of functional impairment.

Brain Injuries↗

Neural systems underlying spatial language in American Sign Language.

A [(15)O]water PET experiment was conducted to investigate the neural regions engaged in processing constructions unique to signed languages: classifier predicates in which the position of the hands in signing space schematically represents spatial relations among objects. Ten deaf native signers viewed line drawings depicting a spatial relation between two objects (e.g., a cup on a table) and were asked either to produce a classifier construction or an American Sign Language (ASL) preposition that described the spatial relation or to name the figure object (colored red). Compared to naming objects, describing spatial relationships with classifier constructions engaged the supramarginal gyrus (SMG) within both hemispheres. Compared to naming objects, naming spatial relations with ASL prepositions engaged only the right SMG. Previous research indicates that retrieval of English prepositions engages both right and left SMG, but more inferiorly than for ASL classifier constructions. Compared to ASL prepositions, naming spatial relations with classifier constructions engaged left inferior temporal (IT) cortex, a region activated when naming concrete objects in either ASL or English. Left IT may be engaged because the handshapes in classifier constructions encode information about object type (e.g., flat surface). Overall, the results suggest more right hemisphere involvement when expressing spatial relations in ASL, perhaps because signing space is used to encode the spatial relationship between objects.

Adult↗