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At least 307 records · Page 17Linked to original sources

PubMed2000

Muscle power factors and VO2max as determinants of horizontal and uphill running performance.

This study was carried out to investigate the importance of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and so-called muscle power factors relating to neuromuscular and anaerobic characteristics as determinants of peak horizontal and uphill treadmill running velocity (Vmax). Muscle power factors were measured as peak velocity (VMART) and blood lactate concentration (BlaMART) in a maximal anaerobic running test and as maximal 30-m run velocity (V30m). Seven middle-distance runners, eight triathletes and eight cross-country skiers performed an incremental VO2max-test at horizontal (subscript max0) and 7 degrees uphill (subscript max7) and the MART at 3 degrees uphill on a treadmill and V30m-test on a track. The MART consisted of n x 20-s runs with a 100-s recovery between the runs and the velocity was increased by 0.41 m x s(-1) for each consecutive run until exhaustion. At 0 degrees Vmax was significantly higher but VO2max, ventilation and Bla were significantly lower than at 7 degrees inclination. Vmax0 correlated with VMART (r=0.85, P<0.001), Blamax0 (r=0.49, P<0.05) and V30m (r=0.78, P<0.001) but not with VO2max0. Vmax7 correlated with VO2max7 (r=0.78, P<0.001), VMART (r=0.61, P<0.01) and V30m (r=0.53, P<0.05). VMART correlated with BlaMART (r=0.71, P<0.01) and V30m (r=0.96, P<0.001) but not with VO2max0 or VO2max7. Middle-distance runners had a significantly (P<0.001) higher Vmax0, VMART BlaMART and V30m than triathletes and cross-country skiers, but no significant differences were found between the three groups in VO2max0, VO2max7 or Vmax7. We conclude that so-called muscle power factors, e.g. VMART, V30m and BlaMART, contribute to peak treadmill running performance and especially to horizontal running performance and that VO2max contributes more to uphill than horizontal running performance.

Anaerobiosis↗

PubMed2002

Effect of Vitamin C and E supplementation on biochemical and ultrastructural indices of muscle damage after a 21 km run.

This study investigated whether 4 weeks of daily supplementation with 500 or 1000 mg of Vitamin C and 500 or 1000 IU of Vitamin E could modify biochemical and ultrastructural indices of muscle damage following a 21 km run. Fifteen experienced male distance runners were divided into two groups (vitamin or placebo) and received supplementation for four weeks before completing the first 21 km run in as fast a time as possible. A four-week "washout" period followed before the subjects crossed over and received the alternate supplement for the next four weeks. They then completed a second 21 km run. Before, immediately after and 24 h after each run venous blood samples were taken and analysed for serum creatine kinase, myoglobin, malondialdehyde and vitamin C and E (before-samples only) concentrations. A subgroup of six subjects also had muscle biopsy (gastrocnemius) samples taken 24 h before and 24 h after each 21 km run, which were later analysed by electron microscopy. The two dosages of supplementation produced similar results, so a single vitamin group was formed for further analysis of results. Significant increases (p < 0.05) in creatine kinase and myoglobin, but not in malondialdehyde, were found post-run in both groups. However, no significant differences were found between the vitamin and placebo groups for creatine kinase, myoglobin and malondialdehyde concentrations recorded after the 21 km runs. A qualitative ultrastructural examination of pre-run muscle samples revealed changes consistent with endurance training, but little further change was seen after the 21 km run in either the vitamin or placebo groups. It was concluded that vitamin C and E supplementation (500 or 1000 mg or IU per day) for four weeks does not reduce either biochemical or ultrastructural indices of muscle damage in experienced runners after a half marathon.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1996

Comparison of three maximal anaerobic running test protocols in marathon runners, middle-distance runners and sprinters.

Three modifications of the maximal anaerobic running test (MART) were compared in sprinters (Spr, n = 5), middle-distance runners (Mid, n = 5) and marathon runners (Mar, n = 6). The MART1, MART3 and MART5 consisted of n sets of 1.20-s, 3.20-s and 5.20-s runs, respectively, on a treadmill with 40-s recovery between the runs and 100-s recovery between the sets. In each MART the velocity of the first set of runs was 3.0 m.s-1 and the slope 4 degrees. Thereafter, the velocity was gradually increased by 0.38 m.s-1 for each consecutive set until exhaustion. After each set and after exhaustion fingertip blood samples were taken to determine lactate concentration and three counter-movement jumps (CMJ) were performed. Maximal (Pmax) and submaximal (P4mM) running power in each MART was expressed as the oxygen demand (ml.kg-1.min-1) of the runs. In MART1, Mar had a significantly lower Pmax than Mid or Spr (mean +/- SD; 97.8 +/- 5.4 vs. 121.0 +/- 4.4 vs. 119.2 +/- 5.4 ml.kg-1.min-1), while in MART3 the groups did not differ significantly, and the sprinters were unable to perform MART5. Mar, Mid and Spr attained the lower Pmax the more runs per set in MART (p < 0.01). Mar had the higher peak blood lactate the more runs each set consisted of (p < 0.001). In Mid and Spr, the peak blood lactate did not differ significantly between the MARTs but was significantly higher than the corresponding peak blood lactate of the marathon runners. Pmax in MART1 correlated positively with maximal 20-m sprinting speed on a track and with CMJ height (p < 0.001, n = 16) but negatively with VO2 max (p < 0.001, n = 16) while in MART3 no significant correlations were found. It was concluded that the n.1.20-s protocol should be used to measure the maximal anaerobic power of all runners. However, in long-distance runners more runs per set may be needed to evaluate their anaerobic capacity.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Time course of anaerobic and aerobic energy expenditure during short-term exhaustive running in athletes.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the time course of aerobic and anaerobic energy yield during supramaximal exhaustive running on the treadmill in sprint and endurance athletes. In addition, the relationships between O2 deficit, excess post-exercise O2 consumption (EPOC) and peak post-exercise blood lactate concentration (peak BLa) values were examined, Oxygen uptake during the exhaustive run and 15 min recovery period was measured using a breath-by-breath method. The accumulated O2 deficit was calculated by an extrapolation procedure. Total running time was the same for eight male sprint runners (49.5 +/- 6.0s) and for six male endurance athletes (49.4 +/- 5.3 s). The sprint group had significantly higher O2 deficit (p < 0.01) during the run as well as higher peak BLa (p < 0.05) and EPOC (p < 0.01) after the run than the endurance group. The relative contribution of anaerobic energy yield decreased from 80% to 60% during the first 15 s of the exhaustive run in both groups. The VO2 peaked and was almost unchanged from 25th to 40th s of the run in both groups, although only 79% of their VO2max was attained. The relative contribution of aerobic energy yield was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the endurance (54-63%) than in the sprint group (43-47%) during the second half of the run. No correlation was found between the O2 deficit and EPOC but peak BLa correlated significantly (p < 0.05) with the O2 deficit (r = 0.53) and EPOC (r = 0.53). In conclusion, the energy release of the sprint and endurance athletes was different only during the second half of the exhaustive supramaximal run, when the sprinters used more the anaerobic and endurance athletes aerobic pathways for energy production.

Adult↗

PubMed1984

Physiologic comparison of competitive racewalking and running.

Eight competitive racewalkers were studied to determine a) the speed where running and racewalking become equally efficient, b) if, at a similar VO2, the physiologic responses to submaximal exercise differ between running and racewalking, and c) if VO2 max can be attained during racewalking. The speed at which running and racewalking elicited the same VO2 (approximately 30 ml X kg-1 X min-1) was between 8 and 9 km X h-1. Racewalking was more efficient at slower speeds, and running was more efficient at faster velocities. When running and racewalking were compared at similar oxygen consumptions, heart rate, ventilation, perceived exertion, and respiratory exchange ratio responses were identical. During maximal exercise, running and racewalking resulted in a similar VO2 max (60.4 +/- 1.3 vs. 58.1 +/- 1.5 ml X kg-1 X min-1), heart rate (193 +/- 4 vs. 188 +/- 4 bpm), ventilation (130.6 +/- 5.9 vs. 126.3 +/- 6.6 l X min-1), and post-exercise blood lactic acid concentration (9.8 +/- 0.6 vs. 9.6 +/- 0.7 mM). These results indicate that the speed where racewalking and running become equally efficient is similar to the crossover speed for conventional walking and running. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and perceptual responses during running and racewalking are the same during maximal exercise and during submaximal exercise at the same VO2.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Kinematic and postural characteristics of sprint running on sloping surfaces.

The aim of this study was to identify the kinematic and postural characteristics associated with sprint running on uphill and downhill slopes of 3 degrees and on a horizontal surface. Eight male physical education students were filmed while sprinting maximally on an uphill-downhill platform under each of three conditions: (a) uphill at 3 degrees, (b) downhill at 3 degrees and (c) horizontal. Running speed, step rate, step length, step time, contact time, flight time and selected postural characteristics of the step cycle were analysed. Running speed was 9.2% faster (P < 0.05) during downhill and 3.0% slower (P < 0.05) during uphill compared with horizontal sprint running. During downhill and uphill sprint running, step length was the main contributor to the observed changes in running speed. It increased by 7.1% (P < 0.05) for downhill sprint running and was associated with significant changes in posture at touchdown and take-off. During uphill sprint running, step length decreased by 5.2% (P < 0.05), which was associated with significant changes in posture and reduced flight distance. Given the interaction between the acute changes in step length and posture when sprinting on a sloping surface, our findings suggest that such changes in posture may detract from the specificity of training on such surfaces. The chronic effects of training on such slopes on the kinematics and posture of horizontal sprint running are currently unclear.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

The physiology of deep-water running.

Deep-water running is performed in the deep end of a swimming pool, normally with the aid of a flotation vest. The method is used for purposes of preventing injury and promoting recovery from strenuous exercise and as a form of supplementary training for cardiovascular fitness. Both stroke volume and cardiac output increase during water immersion: an increase in blood volume largely offsets the cardiac decelerating reflex at rest. At submaximal exercise intensities, blood lactate responses to exercise during deep-water running are elevated in comparison to treadmill running at a given oxygen uptake (VO2). While VO2, minute ventilation and heart rate are decreased under maximal exercise conditions in the water, deep-water running nevertheless can be justified as providing an adequate stimulus for cardiovascular training. Responses to training programmes have confirmed the efficacy of deep-water running, although positive responses are most evident when measured in a water-based test. Aerobic performance is maintained with deep-water running for up to 6 weeks in trained endurance athletes; sedentary individuals benefit more than athletes in improving maximal oxygen uptake. There is some limited evidence of improvement in anaerobic measures and in upper body strength in individuals engaging in deep-water running. A reduction in spinal loading constitutes a role for deep-water running in the prevention of injury, while an alleviation of muscle soreness confirms its value in recovery training. Further research into the applications of deep-water running to exercise therapy and athletes' training is recommended.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗

PubMed2003

The effect of cycling on muscle activation in the running leg of an Olympic distance triathlon.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of prior cycling on EMG activity of selected lower leg muscles during running. Ten elite level triathletes underwent two testing sessions at race pace: a 40 km cycle followed by a 2 km run (CR) and a 10 km run followed by a 2 km run (RR). EMG data from selected lower limb muscles were collected at three sections of each run (0 km, 1 km and 2 km) for six strides using a portable data logger. Significant differences (p < 0.05) between condition were found for the level of activation (Lact) for biceps femoris (BF) during stance and vastus lateralis (VL) during flight and stance. Vastus medialis (VM) changed in Lact, during flight, between sections in the 2 km run. Furthermore, significant differences (p < 0.05) between condition were found for BF during stance and for rectus femoris (RF) and VM during flight. There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the duration of VL activation (Dact) across sections of the 2 km run. Findings from this investigation highlight changes in muscle function when changing from cycling to running and indicate a need to train specifically for the cycle to run transition. Such training may improve performance and reduce the risk of injury.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Changes in muscle power and neuromuscular efficiency after a 40-minute downhill run in veteran long distance runners.

OBJECTIVE: To establish whether there was a relationship between the total accumulated distances of racing in veteran runners and the neuromuscular efficiency of the quadriceps muscles before and after a downhill run. SETTING: University of Cape Town, Sports Science Institute of South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: Twenty male veteran long distance runners (45-50 years of age) with a range of training (1,300 km to 111,280 km) and racing (0 km to 9,737 km) experience. INTERVENTION: A 40-minute downhill run (-10% decline) on a treadmill, at a speed corresponding to 70% of the subject's peak treadmill running speed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The difference between integrated electromyography (IEMG)/mean force over a 5 s maximal voluntary isometric contraction before and after the downhill run was calculated as the delta (delta) neuromuscular efficiency. This was related to the total kilometers trained, current training distance, total kilometers raced, and number of races > 56 km. The difference in drop jump height before and after the downhill run was measured as well as changes in heart rate throughout the run. RESULTS: There was a significant curvilinear relationship between the delta neuromuscular efficiency and total kilometers raced (R2 = 0.53, p < 0.05), and a significant inverse relationship between delta neuromuscular efficiency and the number of races > 56 km (r = -0.50, p < 0.05). Drop jump height decreased after the downhill run, and heart rate increased during the run. CONCLUSIONS: Runners who have raced an accumulated distance of > 5,000 km show a significant dissociation in the delta neuromuscular efficiency after a downhill run, compared with less experienced runners. Although possible causes for the dissociation are discussed, further research is needed.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed2002

Changes in oxygen consumption during and after a downhill run in masters long-distance runners.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether oxygen consumption during submaximal running increases in proportion to years of accumulated training and racing in masters runners after a bout of downhill running. SETTING: University of Cape Town, Sports Science Institute of South Africa. PARTICIPANTS: Seventeen male masters distance runners (45-55 years) with a range of training (3,536 km to 79,320 km) and racing (205 km to 12,218 km) experience. INTERVENTION: A 40-minute continuous treadmill run, at 70% of peak treadmill running speed, consisting of two horizontal runs of 10 minutes each, separated by a 20-minute downhill (-10%) run. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Heart rate and oxygen consumption were measured continuously during the run. Data were analyzed to identify correlations between the end of the first horizontal section (minute 10) and the first minute of the second horizontal run (minute 31). Delta values were related to current training mileage (km/wk), total accumulated racing distance (km), and total accumulated training distance (km). RESULTS: There were significant changes in both heart rate (p < 0.001) and oxygen consumption (p < 0.001) over time during the 40-minute run. There were no significant relationships between the change in oxygen consumption (delta) between minute 10 and minute 31 and total accumulated training mileage, total accumulated racing mileage, and current training. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest either that submaximal oxygen consumption is not a sensitive marker of changes in neuromuscular activity or that the downhill protocol did not impose a sufficient eccentric stress for the subjects.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1985

Effects of conditioned running on plasma, liver and brain tryptophan and on brain 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism of the rat.

An investigation was made into the effects of conditioned running (1 h and 2 h at 20 m min-1), which accelerates lipolysis, on the concentrations of tryptophan (Trp) in plasma, liver and brain and on 5-hydroxytrptamine (5-HT) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels in brain. Running caused time-dependent increases in plasma free Trp and brain Trp of the rat, leading to increased brain 5-HT turnover as revealed by higher amounts of its metabolite, 5-HIAA. The ratio of brain Trp to plasma free Trp was decreased after 2 h of running. Liver Trp content rose only after 3 h of running, while liver unesterified fatty acid (UFA) concentrations remained unmodified. A comparison between food deprivation and running (both of which promote lipolysis) was performed. Running for 2 h affected to the same extent plasma Trp disposition when compared with 24 h food deprivation. Nevertheless, the ratio of brain Trp to plasma free Trp was decreased in the food-deprived rats, when compared to the runners. Nicotinic acid, which inhibits fat catabolism, completely abolished the plasma UFA increase induced by 1 h of running. The drug did not affect plasma free Trp, brain Trp, 5-HT or 5-HIAA but enhanced plasma total Trp level. Naloxone, an opiate antagonist, which decreased running-induced lipolysis, did not alter plasma Trp disposition. Desipramine, an antidepressant compound, affected only peripheral Trp concentrations of the runners. Plasma free and total Trp concentrations were increased in desipramine-treated runners, compared with saline-treated runners. In addition, desipramine increased the ratio of brain Trp to plasma free Trp of the runners. Brain 5-HT and 5-HIAA were increased in both desipramine-treated controls and runners. 9 The results suggest that running, which like food deprivatiQn accelerates lipolysis, increases brain Trp content and then 5-HT turnover. Comparison of these two physiological situations suggests that effectiveness of brain Trp entry is much more altered by fasting.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Neuromuscular fatigue and recovery dynamics following prolonged continuous run at anaerobic threshold.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine the influence of intensive aerobic running on some muscle contractile characteristics and the dynamics of their recovery during a 2 hour period afterwards. METHODS: Seven well trained runners performed a 6 km run at anaerobic threshold (V(OBLA)). Knee torque during single twitch, low and high frequency electrical stimulation (ES), maximum voluntary knee extension, and muscle activation level test of the quadriceps femoris muscles were measured before and immediately after the run, and at several time points during a 120 minute interval that followed the run. RESULTS: After exercise, the mean (SE) maximum twitch torque (T(TW)) and torque at ES with 20 Hz (low frequency ES; T(F20)) dropped by 14.1 (5.1)% (p<0.05) and 20.6 (7.9)% (p<0.05) respectively, while torque at stimulation with 100 Hz (high frequency ES; T(F100)), maximum isometric knee extension torque (maximum voluntary contraction torque; T(MVC)), and activation level did not change significantly. Twitch contraction time was shortened by 8 (2)% (p<0.05). Ten minutes after the run, T(TW) was 40% higher than immediately after the run and 10% (p<0.05) higher than before the run. T(F20), T(F100), and T(MVC) remained lower for 60 minutes (p<0.05) than before the run. CONCLUSIONS: A 6 km continuous run at V(OBLA) caused peripheral fatigue by impairing excitation-contraction coupling. Twitch torque recovered very quickly. However, the process of torque restoration at maximum isometric knee extension torque and at high and low frequency ES took much longer.

Adult↗

PubMed1988

A progressive shuttle run test to estimate maximal oxygen uptake.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the validity of using a 20 m progressive shuttle run test to estimate maximal oxygen uptake. Running ability was described as the final level attained on the shuttle run test and as time on a 5 km run. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) was determined directly for seventy-four volunteers (36 men, 38 women) who also completed the shuttle run test. Maximal oxygen uptake values were 58.5 +/- 7.0 and 47.4 +/- 6.1 ml.kg-1.min-1 for the men and women respectively (mean +/- SD, P less than 0.01). The levels attained on the shuttle run test were 12.6 +/- 1.5 (men) and 9.6 +/- 1.8 (women; P less than 0.01). The correlation between VO2 max and shuttle level was 0.92. The correlation between VO2 max and the 5 km run was -0.94 and the correlation between both field tests was -0.96. The results of this study suggest that a progressive shuttle run test provides a valid estimate of VO2 max and indicates 5 km running potential in active men and women.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

The effect of desmopressin, a vasopressin analog, on endurance performance during a prolonged run in simulated heat conditions.

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) release into the bloodstream is essential for water balance in the body and, thus, for core-temperature regulation. We investigated the effect of the AVP analog desmopressin (Des) on the performance of 6 endurance runners in a simulated heat condition. Four strenuous treadmill runs were performed at a 1-week interval. Over the 4 test sessions, room temperature and relative humidity were 22 +/- 0.4 degrees C and 47% +/- 7%, respectively. Each run included 40 min at 60% maximal aerobic velocity immediately followed by an incremental run until exhaustion. Dehydration and hyperthermia were induced by wearing an impermeable tracksuit. Two runs were performed with no hydration (NH; NH-Des) and two under false hydration (FH; FH-Des). Under FH conditions, the runner was given a set amount of water every 5 min of the run, which was kept in the mouth for 10 s and spat out. Under NH-Des and FH-Des conditions, the run was performed 60 min after a 30 microg intranasal administration of desmopressin. In the NH-Des trial, the total distance run was 5%-8% longer than in the other conditions (p < 0.05). This was associated with a lower heart rate after the 40 min run than occurred in the NH and FH trials (p < 0.01) and a lower tympanic temperature than in the FH trial (p < 0.05). Urine mass was also lower under NH-Des conditions than under NH and FH conditions (p < 0.05). It is suggested that desmopressin administration could improve dramatically prolonged running performances in a hot and humid environment.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Physiological characteristics of the best Eritrean runners-exceptional running economy.

Despite their young age, limited training history, and lack of running tradition compared with other East African endurance athletes (e.g., Kenyans and Ethiopians), male endurance runners from Eritrea have recently attained important running successes. The purposes of our study were (i) to document the main physical and physiological characteristics of elite black Eritrean distance runners (n = 7; age: 22 +/- 3 years) and (ii) to compare them with those of their elite white Spanish counterparts. For this second purpose we selected a control group of elite Spanish runners (n = 9; 24 +/- 2 years), owing to the traditionally high success of Spanish athletes in long-distance running compared with other white runners, especially in cross-country competitions. The subjects' main anthropometric characteristics were determined, together with their maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) and VO2 (mL.kg(-1).min(-1)), blood lactate, and ammonia concentrations while running at 17, 19, or 21 km.h(-1). The body mass index (18.9 +/- 1.5 kg.m(-2)) and maximal calf circumference (30.9 +/- 1.5 cm) was lower in Eritreans than in Spaniards (20.5 +/- 1.7 kg.m(-2) and 33.9 +/- 2.0 cm, respectively) (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively) and their lower leg (shank) length was longer (44.1 +/- 3.0 cm vs. 40.6 +/- 2.7 cm, respectively) (p < 0.05). VO2 max did not differ significantly between Eritreans and Spaniards (73.8 +/- 5.6 mL.kg(-1).min(-1) vs. 77.8 +/- 5.7 mL.kg(-1).min(-1), respectively), whereas the VO2 cost of running was lower (p < 0.01) in the former (e.g., 65.9 +/- 6.8 mL.kg(-1).min(-1) vs. 74.8 +/- 5.0 mL.kg(-1).min(-1) when running at 21 km.h(-1)). Our data suggest that the excellent running economy of Eritreans is associated, at least partly, with anthropometric variables. Comparison of their submaximal running cost with other published data suggests that superior running economy, rather than enhanced aerobic capacity, may be the common denominator in the success of black endurance runners of East African origin.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Interval training at 95% and 100% of the velocity at VO2 max: effects on aerobic physiological indexes and running performance.

The objective of this study was to analyze the effect of two different high-intensity interval training (HIT) programs on selected aerobic physiological indices and 1500 and 5000 m running performance in well-trained runners. The following tests were completed (n=17): (i) incremental treadmill test to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max), running velocity associated with VO2 max (vVO2 max), and the velocity corresponding to 3.5 mmol/L of blood lactate concentration (vOBLA); (ii) submaximal constant-intensity test to determine running economy (RE); and (iii) 1500 and 5000 m time trials on a 400 m track. Runners were then randomized into 95% vVO2 max or 100% vVO2 max groups, and undertook a 4 week training program consisting of 2 HIT sessions (performed at 95% or 100% vVO2 max, respectively) and 4 submaximal run sessions per week. Runners were retested on all parameters at the completion of the training program. The VO2 max values were not different after training for both groups. There was a significant increase in post-training vVO2 max, RE, and 1500 m running performance in the 100% vVO2 max group. The vOBLA and 5000 m running performance were significantly higher after the training period for both groups. We conclude that vOBLA and 5000 m running performance can be significantly improved in well-trained runners using a 4 week training program consisting of 2 HIT sessions (performed at 95% or 100% vVO2 max) and 4 submaximal run sessions per week. However, the improvement in vVO2 max, RE, and 1500 m running performance seems to be dependent on the HIT program at 100% vVO2 max.

Adult↗

PubMed1975

Maximal oxygen uptake during treadmill walking and running at various speeds.

Three groups of male subjects, average fitness (AF, N = 12), high fitness (HF, N = 7) and highly fit competitive race walkers (CRW, N = 3) performed maximal treadmill tests walking at 3.5 and 4.5 mph and running at 4.5, 5.5, 7.0, and 8.5 mph. In addition, the HF group performed a running test at 10.0 mph and the CRW group performed a walking test at 5.5 mph. All maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) tests with the exception of the 3.5 mph walking test (modified Balke test) were discontinuous in nature. VO2 max obtained from walking tests was similar regardless of speed within each group. Walking VO2 max was significantly lower than running VO2 max which was found to be similar over a speed range of 4.5 to 8.5 mph in the AF group. Running at 4.5 mph (HF group) and 4.5 and 5.5 mph (CRW group) resulted in lower VO2 max levels than running at speeds greater than or equal to 7.0 mph. Associated physiological variables (heart rate, ventilation, and respiratory exchange ratio) did not demonstrate a discernable pattern with reference to mode of locomotion (walking versus running) or speed. It was concluded that VO2 max elicited during walking is independent of speed and less than VO2 max obtained during running. Running VO2 max was interrelated with speed of running and state of training.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Running training attenuates the ACTH responses in rats to swimming and cage-switch stress.

The present study was carried out to investigate the effect of running training on adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) response in rats to swimming or cage-switch stress to determine whether, after physical training, a cross-adaptation develops in the ACTH responses induced by different types of stresses. Rats were trained by two different kinds of exercises and for two different periods of training: 1) swimming for 4 wk (4W-swimming), 2) running for 4 wk (4W-running), and 3) running for 10 wk (10W-running). Remaining rats were used for control for 4 wk (4W-control) and 10 wk (10W-control). The ACTH response induced by swimming stress was reduced after training by swimming (62.4%) or by running (13.8-16.4%). These training periods also attenuated the ACTH response induced by cage-switch stress (62.4% in the swimming group, 23.8-34.6% in the running groups). After swimming stress, the 4W-swimming and 10W-running groups showed smaller increases in blood glucose than the control groups. In addition, the increased levels of blood lactate in all the trained rats were significantly smaller than those in the control groups, suggesting that an adaptation was achieved after physical training. These results suggest that after running training, cross-adaptation is developed in the ACTH response induced by different types of physical (swimming) or psychological (cage-switch) stresses.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗