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PubMed1997

Anaerobic capacity and muscle activation during horizontal and uphill running.

Anaerobic capacity as measured by the maximal or peak oxygen deficit is greater during uphill than during horizontal running. The objective of this study was to determine whether the greater peak oxygen deficit determined during uphill compared with horizontal running is related to greater muscle volume or mass activated in the lower extremity. The peak oxygen deficit in 12 subjects was determined during supramaximal treadmill running at 0 and 10% grade. Exercise-induced contrast shifts in magnetic resonance images were obtained before and after exercise and used to determine the percentage of muscle volume activated. The mean peak oxygen deficit determined for uphill running [2.96 +/- 0.63 (SD) liters or 49 +/- 6 ml/kg] was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than for horizontal running (2.45 +/- 0.51 liters or 41 +/- 7 ml/kg) by 21%. The mean percentage of muscle volume activated for uphill running [73.1 +/- 7. 4% (SD)] was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than for horizontal running (67.0 +/- 8.3%) by 9%. The differences in peak oxygen deficit (liters) between uphill and horizontal running were significantly related (y = 8.05 x 10(-4)x + 0.35; r = 0.63, SE of estimate = 0.29 liter, P < 0.05) to the differences in the active muscle volume (cm3) in the lower extremity. We conclude that the higher peak oxygen deficit during uphill compared with horizontal running is due in part to increased mass of skeletal muscle activated in the lower extremity.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Cooling vest worn during active warm-up improves 5-km run performance in the heat.

We investigated whether a cooling vest worn during an active warm-up enhances 5-km run time in the heat. Seventeen competitive runners (9 men, maximal oxygen uptake = 66.7 +/- 5.9 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1); 8 women, maximal oxygen uptake = 58.0 +/- 3.2 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1)) completed two simulated 5-km runs on a treadmill after a 38-min active warm-up during which they wore either a T-shirt (C) or a vest filled with ice (V) in a hot, humid environment (32 degrees C, 50% relative humidity). Wearing the cooling vest during warm-up significantly (P < 0.05) blunted increases in body temperature, heart rate (HR), and perception of thermal discomfort during warm-up compared with control. At the start of the 5-km run, esophageal, rectal, mean skin, and mean body temperatures averaged 0.3, 0.2, 1.8, and 0.4 degrees C lower; HR averaged 11 beats/min lower; and perception of thermal discomfort (5-point scale) averaged 0.6 point lower in V than C. Most of these differences were eliminated during the first 3.2 km of the run, and these variables were not different at the end. The 5-km run time was significantly lower (P < 0.05) by 13 s in V than C, with a faster pace most evident during the last two-thirds of the run. We conclude that a cooling vest worn during active warm-up by track athletes enhances 5-km run performance in the heat. Reduced thermal and cardiovascular strain and perception of thermal discomfort in the early portion of the run appear to permit a faster pace later in the run.

Body Temperature↗

PubMed1985

Failure of caffeine to affect substrate utilization during prolonged running.

Nine sub-3-h male marathoners performed three 45-min monitored treadmill runs at approximately 75% of VO2max during a 2-wk period. The men were assigned in a random, double-blind fashion following the control run to receive either 350 ml of decaffeinated coffee or 350 ml of decaffeinated coffee with 400 mg of caffeine added 1 h before the second run with crossover to the other beverage for the third run. Venous blood was analyzed for free fatty acids, triglycerides, glucose, and lactic acid before beverage consumption and before and after each run. Oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2), respiratory exchange ratio (R), ventilation (VE), and perceived exertion were measured at 15, 30, and 45 min of each run. Of the blood parameters, free fatty acid and lactic acid concentration increased following caffeine ingestion. There was no difference in VO2, VCO2, or R between the three runs. Perceived exertion showed a significant decrease (P less than 0.05) at each time point in caffeine added and decaffeinated compared to control. Triglycerides, glucose, and lactic acid increased similarly in all three runs. In these well-trained marathoners, although plasma free fatty acids were elevated significantly prior to exercise after caffeine ingestion, there was no indirect evidence of altered substrate utilization during subsequent treadmill running.

Blood Glucose↗

PubMed1990

Running speed and spinal shrinkage in runners with and without low back pain.

Decreases in stature (shrinkage) are used to indicate exercise induced spinal loading. This study examined the effect of three running speeds on two groups of runners, one with chronic low back pain. The two groups of seven male marathon runners ran at 70%, 85%, and 100% of their marathon race pace for 30 min on separate occasions. Before and after exercise the subjects were seated for 20 min with the lumbar spine supported. Stature was measured before pre-exercise sitting, before running, after 15 min of running, after 30 min of running, and after post-exercise sitting. A stadiometer accurate to within 0.5 mm was used to record changes in stature. Results showed no differences in response to the three running regimens between the groups (P greater than 0.05). Shrinkage was greater during the first 15 min, being 3.26 (+/- 2.78) mm compared with 2.12 (+/- 1.61) mm for the second 15 min of the run (P less than 0.05). The faster the running speed the greater the resultant shrinkage. The 70%, 85%, and 100% conditions caused 3.37 (+/- 2.38), 5.10 (+/- 1.90), and 7.69 (+/- 3.69) mm of shrinkage, respectively (P less than 0.005). These results suggest that low back pain is independent of the shrinkage induced by running. Further research is required to determine the effect of longer duration runs on spinal shrinkage.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

The impact of resistance training on distance running performance.

Traditionally, distance running performance was thought to be determined by several characteristics, including maximum oxygen consumption (VO(2max)), lactate threshold (LT), and running economy. Improvements in these areas are primarily achieved through endurance training. Recently, however, it has been shown that anaerobic factors may also play an important role in distance running performance. As a result, some researchers have theorised that resistance training may benefit distance runners. Because resistance training is unlikely to elicit an aerobic stimulus of greater than 50% of VO(2max), it is unlikely that resistance training would improve VO(2max) in trained distance runners. However, it appears that VO(2max) is not compromised when resistance training is added to an endurance programme. Similarly, LT is likely not improved as a result of resistance training in trained endurance runners; however, improvements in LT have been observed in untrained individuals as a result of resistance training. Trained distance runners have shown improvements of up to 8% in running economy following a period of resistance training. Even a small improvement in running economy could have a large impact on distance running performance, particularly in longer events, such as marathons or ultra-marathons. The improvement in running economy has been theorised to be a result of improvements in neuromuscular characteristics, including motor unit recruitment and reduced ground contact time. Although largely theoretical at this point, if resistance training is to improve distance running performance, it will likely have the largest impact on anaerobic capacity and/or neuromuscular characteristics. The primary purpose of this review is to consider the impact of resistance training on the factors that are known to impact distance running performance. A second purpose is to consider different modes of resistance exercise to determine if an optimal protocol exists.

Anaerobiosis↗

PubMed1998

Effects of a 2-hour run on metabolic economy and lower extremity strength in men and women.

Changes in running economy, or the oxygen cost of running at a given submaximal speed (ml/m/kg), during prolonged exercise have been well described in men but not in women. Lower extremity strength changes associated with prolonged exercise have never been addressed. We examined changes in running economy and strength following a 2-hour run in eight men and eight women. Knee and hip strength were measured pre- and post-running. Peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) and oxygen consumption at ventilatory threshold were determined. Subjects then ran for 2 hours at an intensity which elicited ventilatory threshold (68.7% vs. 66.6% of VO2peak for men and women, p = 0.5). Water was ingested at a rate of 0.5% of body weight each half hour. Oxygen uptake (VO2) and respiratory exchange ratio were measured initially and at 1 and 2 hours. Body weight declined in the men (p = 0.001) but not in the women (p = 0.12). Running economy decreased in the men (p < 0.001) but not in the women (p = 0.084). At 2 hours of running, knee flexion and extension strength declined significantly in the men only (effect of gender x time, p < 0.014), but hip flexion, abduction, and adduction strength declined in both genders. Decreased knee extensor/flexor strength was evident in men only, while decreased hip strength was independent of gender. We conclude that 2 hours of running produced changes in knee strength and running economy in men only.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Pulmonary function during cycling and running in triathletes.

AIM: Running performance has become key to the triathlete's overall performance. We still know relatively little about the factors that define the ability to perform a good run after cycling, however, and the perception of discomfort during the first minutes of this post-cycling running has yet to be satisfactorily explained. Pulmonary volumes (i.e., residual volume, RV, and functional residual capacity, FRC) have been demonstrated to be impaired after a cycle-run succession in triathletes but not after a run-run succession that is matched in terms of intensity and duration. Cycling in itself and/or the succession of two different exercises (i.e., cycling and running) may explain this phenomenon, but the exact mechanism has not yet been determined. METHODS: Thirteen young male triathletes participated in three different exercise trials: 30 min of cycling followed by 20 min of running (C-R), 30 min of control cycling (C) and 20 min of control running (R). Pulmonary volumes and flows were measured 10 min before and 10 min after each trial. During all trials, ventilatory data were collected every minute using an automated breath-by-breath system. RESULTS: The results showed that 1) C induced significant increases in RV, FRC and RV/TLC (2.31+/-0.18 vs 2.01+/-0.17 L, 4.35+/-0.24 vs 4.01+/-0.25 L, and 27.21+/-1.62 vs 23.98+/-1.55, respectively, after versus before C) and 2) there were no significant pulmonary volume or flow changes after C-R or R. CONCLUSION: We concluded that 1) cycling exercise in itself seems to increase the post-exercise pulmonary volume changes which could lead to respiratory muscle alterations and 2) one likely explanation for this finding appears to be the crouched position of cycling.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Running on land and in water: comparative exercise physiology.

The effect of water immersion on cardiorespiratory and blood lactate responses during running was investigated. Wearing a buoyant vest, 10 trained runners (mean age 26 yr) ran in water at four different and specified submaximal loads (target heart rates 115, 130, 145, and 155-160 beats.min-1) and at maximal exercise intensity. Oxygen uptakes (VO2), heart rates, perceived exertion, and blood lactate concentrations were measured. Values were compared with levels obtained during treadmill running. For a given VO2, heart rate was 8-11 beats.min-1 lower during water running than during treadmill running, irrespective of exercise intensity. Both the maximal oxygen uptake (4.03 vs 4.60 1 x min-1) and heart rate (172 vs 188 beats.min-1) were lower during water running. Perceived exertion (legs and breathing) and the respiratory exchange ratio (RER) were higher during submaximal water running than during treadmill running, while ventilation (1 x min-1) was similar. The blood lactate concentrations were consistently higher in water than on the treadmill, both when related to VO2 and to %VO2max. Partly in conformity with earlier cycle ergometer studies, these data suggest that immersion induces acute cardiac adjustments that extend up to the maximal exercise level. Furthermore, both the external hydrostatic load and an altered running technique may add to an increased anaerobic metabolism during supported water running.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Preventing running injuries. Practical approach for family doctors.

OBJECTIVE: To present a practical approach for preventing running injuries. QUALITY OF EVIDENCE: Much of the research on running injuries is in the form of expert opinion and comparison trials. Recent systematic reviews have summarized research in orthotics, stretching before running, and interventions to prevent soft tissue injuries. MAIN MESSAGE: The most common factors implicated in running injuries are errors in training methods, inappropriate training surfaces and running shoes, malalignment of the leg, and muscle weakness and inflexibility. Runners can reduce risk of injury by using established training programs that gradually increase distance or time of running and provide appropriate rest. Orthoses and heel lifts can correct malalignments of the leg. Running shoes appropriate for runners' foot types should be selected. Lower-extremity strength and flexibility programs should be added to training. Select appropriate surfaces for training and introduce changes gradually. CONCLUSION: Prevention addresses factors proven to cause running injuries. Unfortunately, injury is often the first sign of fault in running programs, so patients should be taught to recognize early symptoms of injury.

Athletic Injuries↗

PubMed2005

Physiological and biomechanical responses while running with and without a stroller.

AIM: This study examined the effects of pushing a jogging stroller on biomechanical and physiological variables. The hypothesis was that running with a stroller for 30 minutes would shorten stride length and increase physiological indices of exercise. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: this was a repeated measures design. SETTING: participants were recruited from road races in the Dallas/Fort Worth, TX area. Graded exercise tests were performed in a laboratory setting, field tests were performed on a 400 m all-weather outdoor track. PARTICIPANTS: 5 males and 5 females were assessed. INTERVENTIONS: participants performed a graded exercise test and 2 field tests. The 1st field test involved running at 75% VO2max for 30 minutes without a stroller and the 2nd involved running at the same speed with the stroller. MEASURES: VO2, stride length, heart rate, lactate, ventilation, and RPE were evaluated. RESULTS: No differences for VO2 or stride length were evident. Heart rate (p=0.0001), lactate concentration (p=0.025), ventilation (p=0.009), and RPE (p=0.002) increased from 10 to 30 minutes while running with the stroller. Heart rate (p=0.002), lactate concentration (p=0.0001), ventilation (p=0.006), and RPE (p=0.001) were significantly higher while running with the stroller after 30 minutes compared to running without it. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that pushing a stroller affects some indices of exercise intensity while running. Gait does not change. These data do not support an association between stroller use during running and an increase risk of orthopedic injury. Further studies should examine these variables at lower intensities that are run by most recreational joggers.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

The effects of shoes on the torsion and rearfoot motion in running.

Excessive pronation is accepted as a good indicator for various running injuries. The least amount of pronation takes place when running barefoot. The latest investigations show that this is connected to a large torsional movement between forefoot and rearfoot which can be influenced by the shoe sole construction. The shoes which are in use among runners in track and field are basically of two types, running shoes (in general torsionally stiff) and spikes (torsionally flexible). The possibly varying effect of these shoes on the shoe/foot motion in running is not known. The purpose of this investigation was therefore to show whether the pronation angle and the torsion angle differ when running barefoot, with spikes, and with running shoes (forefoot touchdown, N = 9 left and right). A film analysis provided the angular movements of the lower leg, rearfoot, and forefoot as well as pronation and torsion in the frontal plane. The results show that at touchdown the torsional movements with both shoe types are quite different from those of running barefoot. With shoes, the torsion angle is reduced back to zero--with running shoes more than with spikes--and the pronation angle is increased beyond the barefoot values (P less than 0.01). In order to reduce the risk of injury, both shoe types should be improved--the running shoes with respect to torsion and the spikes with respect to pronation.

Achilles Tendon↗

PubMed1991

Physiological correlates to 800 meter running performance.

Much of the previous research efforts aimed at determining those physiological characteristics that contribute to distance running success have centered around distances greater than 1500 meters with little attention to events such as the 800 meter run. Therefore, this investigation examined the relationship between selected physiological and body composition, characteristics and performance in an 800 meter run. Measurements of body composition, VO2max, running economy, and performance times for 100 and 300 meter dashes were obtained on 11 male track athletes. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was performed using 800 meter race time as the dependent variable. Although the combination of 300 and 100 meter run times, percent body fat, running economy and VO2 max as independent variables accounted for the greatest amount of total variance (r2 = .89), the additional variance explained by the model did not increase significantly (p greater than 0.05), when VO2max, percent body fat, and running economy were added to a model which contained 300 and 100 meter run time (r2 = .85) as the explanatory variables. These data offer additional support for the notion that much of the intramuscular ATP produce and utilized during an 800 meter run comes from anaerobic metabolic pathway.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Biological determinants of the sex difference in 12-min run performance.

The extent to which differences between men and women in cardiorespiratory capacity (VO2max in ml X min-1 X kg FFW-1), percent fat, and running economy (VO2 in ml X min-1 X kg BW-1 at 188 m X min-1) account for the sex difference in 12-min run performance was investigated in 34 male and 34 female recreational runners, 19-35 yr of age. Men differed significantly (P less than 0.05) from women in VO2max (68.6 vs 65.1 ml X min-1 X kg FFW-1), percent fat, (10.8 vs 19.8%), and 12-min run performance (3294 vs 2747 m), but not in running economy (39.0 vs 39.1 ml X min-1 X kg BW-1). Simple and multiple regression and correlation analyses indicated that relations of the biological variables to 12-min run performance were similar within groups of men and women. Multiple regression analysis revealed that percent fat, VO2max (ml X min-1 X kg FFW-1), and running economy accounted for 74, 20, and 2% of the average sex difference in 12-min run performance, respectively. It was concluded that for men and women similarly trained, the average sex difference in 12-min run performance is primarily due to differences in percent fat and cardiorespiratory capacity. If the observed differences between men and women on these variables are truly a function of sex, results of this study provide a biological basis for different distance running performance expectations for men and women.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1982

An epidemiologic study of the benefits and risks of running.

To better estimate rates of certain benefits and risks of recreational running, we sent questionnaires to 1,250 randomly selected male and 1,250 female registrants for a 10-km road race. The response rate was 55% for men and 58% for women. Telephone interviews of a randomly selected group of nonrespondents indicated that the only significant differences between respondents and nonrespondents were that (1) respondents were older than nonrespondents, (2) more male nonrespondents had stopped running during the year after the race, and (3) more male nonrespondents had been hit by thrown objects. One year after the race, 89% of male and 79% of female respondents were still running regularly. Eighty-one percent of men and 75% of women who smoked cigarettes when they began running had stopped smoking after beginning recreational running. Giving up smoking was significantly more common for current runners than for "retired" runners. Weight loss was commonly associated with running and was greater in those persons who were overweight when they began running. More than a third of respondents had a musculoskeletal injury attributed to running in the year after the race and about one seventh of all respondents sought medical consultation for their injury. The risk of injury increased with increasing weekly mileage. This study uses epidemiologic methods to quantify some of the benefits and risks of running.

Accidents↗

PubMed1994

Does running cause gastrointestinal symptoms? A survey of 93 randomly selected runners compared with controls.

AIM: To investigate the belief that running causes diarrhoea and gastroesophageal reflux. METHODS: Diet and gastrointestinal symptom questionnaires were completed by 93 randomly selected runners and 95 age, sex matched sedentary controls. RESULTS: The runners ate more fibre and had more frequent bowel movements which were more often loose or urgent. They had less constipation but there was no difference in the use of laxatives or the prevalence of the irritable bowel syndrome. Although most runners tried to empty their bowels before running, the urgent need to have a bowel movement was still the most common reason for a runner to stop during a run. Heartburn, vomiting and bloating were more common when not training while retching, stitches and fecal incontinence were more common when running. Few runners ate before running and upper gastrointestinal symptoms while running were rare. CONCLUSIONS: Lower gastrointestinal symptoms may be caused by running or the running lifestyle. Upper gastrointestinal symptoms are not due to running alone.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Evaluation of a shallow water running test for the estimation of peak aerobic power.

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the validity of a 500-yard shallow water run test to determine peak aerobic power (VO2peak) and to compare it with the commonly used 1.5-mile run test. Subjects included 15 men and 28 women who completed two trials each of a 500-yard shallow water run test and a 1.5-mile run and then completed a graded exercise test on a treadmill to determine VO2peak. Correlation coefficients with measured VO2peak were -0.89 and -0.80 for the 1.5-mile and 500-yard water runs, respectively. Multiple regression analyses revealed that prediction of VO2peak from 1.5-mile run time was significantly improved by including the 1.5-mile run peak HR (R2 = 0.82, SEE = 3.52 ml.kg-1.min-1). Similarly, for the 500-yard water run test, percent body fat and height were significant additional predictors of VO2peak (R2 = 0.86, SEE = 3.19 ml.kg-1.min-1). We conclude that the 500-yard shallow water run test, especially when used with the descriptive measures of percent body fat and height, can provide a reasonable estimate of an individuals' cardiorespiratory fitness classification. However, caution is advised when administering these tests in older populations or in those with multiple coronary risk factors.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Running and its effect on family life.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency with which commitment to running conflicts with family life, to distinguish between runners who experience conflict and those who do not based on their levels of commitment to the roles of runner and family member, and to determine whether runners who reported conflict receive less support for running from their significant other. DESIGN: A questionnaire was mailed to 1426 members of a running club. Personal demographics, running quantity, conflict, commitment to running, family commitment, and spouse support were measured. The Family APGAR scale was used to measure global family functioning, assessing adaptation, partnership, growth, affection, and resolve. RESULTS: There were 724 respondents for a response rate of 50.8%. Five hundred fifty-eight runners (356 men, and 202 women) lived with a partner. The mean score for conflict was 1.9. Only 32 (5.5%) had a score above 3 (high conflict). When evaluated together and separately, the women and men in the high-conflict groups had equal commitment to running, lower family commitment, lower spouse support, and a lower Family APGAR score compared with the low-conflict group. CONCLUSIONS: In this study running is not a major contributor to family conflict. Those runners who are experiencing conflict seem to have a more global conflict with their families that is independent of running, manifested by decreasing spouse support for the runner's activities. If a runner is an active, committed member of his or her own family and sets this commitment as a priority, it does not appear that the time and energy of running is by itself a source of conflict.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1997

Injuries in Australian Army recruits. Part I: Decreased incidence and severity of injury seen with reduced running distance.

Three hundred fifty male recruits were randomly allocated to either the standard recruit training program (N = 180) or substituted a weighted march activity for all running periods in the physical training program (N = 170). There were no other differences in the formal training program. The incidence of injury was 37.6 and 46.6% in the walk and run groups, respectively. The rate of injury was 52.9/100 recruits in the walk group and 61.7/100 in the run group. The exposure incidence was 12.8/1,000 hours of physical training in the walk group and 14.9/1,000 hours in the run group. There was no statistically significantly difference in the total number of injured recruits in the two groups (64 vs. 85, chi(2) = 2.90, p = 0.09, relative risk [RR] = 1.24). There were, however, significantly more lower-limb (43 vs. 75, chi(2) = 9.77, p = 0.0018, RR = 1.65) and knee injuries (15 vs. 35, chi(2) = 6.54, p = 0.011, RR = 2.14) in the Run group. Lower-limb injuries constituted 79.8% of all Run injuries and 61.1% of all Walk injuries. Injuries in the Run group produced more morbidity, with nearly double the number of days of restriction, hospitalization, and not fit for duty. Standardized morbidity rates showed an average of 5.4 days of restriction per injury in the Run group and 3.96 days of restriction per injury in the Walk group. Reduction of running distance in the physical training program resulted in significant reductions in both the incidence of lower-limb injury and the overall severity of injury.

Adult↗