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PubMed2005

The influence of Surelease and sodium alginate on the in-vitro release of tamsulosin hydrochloride in pellet dosage form.

The objective of this study was to prepare controlled-release pellets containing 0.2 mg tamsulosin hydrochloride using a pelletizer-equipped piston extruder and double-arm counter-rotating rollers with Surelease and sodium alginate. The release of tamsulosin HCl from pellets coated with the commercial aqueous ethylcellulose dispersion (Surelease) was investigated at different coating loads. In addition, the effect of sodium alginate on drug release was investigated by varying the ratio of sodium alginate to microcrystalline cellulose (MCC). Dissolution studies were first performed in 500 mL simulated gastric fluid (pH 1.2) containing 0.003% (w/w) polysorbate 80 and then in simulated intestinal fluids (pH 7.2). The morphology of pellet surfaces and cross sections were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Apparently, the spherical pellets were prepared using a pelletizer-equipped piston extruder and double-arm counter-rotating rollers. The release profiles of tamsulosin HCl from Surelease-coated pellets were significantly affected by changing the content of Surelease, the pH of the dissolution medium and the ratio of sodium alginate to MCC. The drug release rates not only decreased with increase in the coating load, but also increased when the pH of the dissolution medium was increased from 1.2 to 7.2 regardless of the sodium alginate-to-MCC ratio. Moreover, the drug release rate at pH 7.2 was gradually increased by increasing the ratio of sodium alginate to MCC. SEM showed smooth surfaces of Surelease-coated pellets. These results suggest that Surelease and sodium alginate would be useful excipients in the preparation of controlled-release pellets with the desired release profiles.

Alginates↗

PubMed1997

Microdialysis assessment of fibrin glue containing sodium alginate for local delivery of doxorubicin in tumor-bearing rats.

This study was designed to assess a local drug delivery system of an anticancer agent, doxorubicin (DOX), using fibrin glue (Beriplast P) as a drug carrier. In vitro release of DOX from the fibrin glue was examined by a dialysis method in the presence and absence of sodium alginate. The in vitro mean dissolution times of DOX with solution, fibrin glue, and fibrin glue containing sodium alginate were 3.7 h, 8.7 h, and 81 h, respectively, indicating a sustained release of DOX from fibrin glue, especially in the presence of sodium alginate. Fibrin glue containing 6 mg of DOX and 2.5 mg of sodium alginate was applied on the surface of an AH60C tumor at the back of rats. DOX concentrations in the tumor extracellular fluid were monitored by a microdialysis method. Local application of DOX using fibrin glue containing sodium alginate to the tumor resulted in extremely higher concentrations in the tumor extracellular fluid than those in plasma (AUC ratio > 800), indicating an advantage of the site-specific delivery of DOX using fibrin glue with sodium alginate. The tumor volumes were inversely correlated with tumor extracellular fluid-to-plasma AUC ratios (r = 0.882), suggesting the relevance of tumor size in the drug efflux from tumor to blood. In conclusion, the site-specific delivery of DOX using fibrin glue with sodium alginate to the tumor was demonstrated to be advantageous with regard to the extent and duration of drug concentrations in the tumor extracellular fluid, as assessed by a microdialysis technique.

Alginates↗

PubMed2001

Prevention of morphological changes in alginate microcapsules for islet xenotransplantation.

BACKGROUND: Alginate microcapsule swelling, which occurs as a result of increased hydrophilicity owing to the Ca++ that remains after rapid chelation of the inner alginate core, is a problem in encapsulation. We have previously shown that exchange of the residual divalent Ca++ with the monovalent Na+ through the use of 6 mmol/L Na2SO4 decreases swelling in chelated alginate-polylysine-alginate microcapsules, and this process enhances their durability. The purpose of the present study was to examine the morphology of Na2SO4-treated microcapsules in long-term incubation with the use of serum-supplemented culture medium. METHODS: Spherical beads of purified alginate (3%) that were gelled with 1.1% CaCl2 were first coated with polylysine, and then with 0.24% alginate. After rapid chelation of the inner alginate core with 55 mmol/L sodium citrate, the capsules were either incubated for 30 minutes in 6 mmol/L Na2SO4 or left untreated (control). Each group of capsules was then placed in a flask containing Ham's culture medium supplemented with 20% porcine serum and incubated at 37 degrees C. RESULTS: The diameters of Na2SO4-treated capsules only increased modestly from a mean +/- SD of 635 +/- 22.08 to 684.53 +/- 17.86 microm (P<0.0001) by day 7, with no further increases thereafter. In contrast, control capsules showed a steady increase in their mean diameters, which changed from 639.55 +/- 21.44 to 735.48 +/- 108.85 microm (P < 0.0001) by day 66. In addition, whereas treated capsules remained spherical, control capsules showed progressive polymorphism. CONCLUSION: We have developed a new method of making more durable and stable microcapsules that can be used for islet cell xenotransplantation.

Alginates↗

PubMed1996

Novel technology for the preparation of sterile alginate-poly-l-lysine microcapsules in a bioreactor.

The purpose of this study was to develop a method that may be suitable for the commercial manufacture of sterile alginate-polylysine-alginate microcapsules in a bioreactor. A Turbotak atomizing device in conjunction with a Bellco Bioreactor was used to prepare sterile microcapsules. Aseptic procedures were followed using sterilized equipment and materials. Sodium alginate solution was sprayed into calcium chloride solution using the Turbotak, with nitrogen as the atomizing gas. The resultant gelled alginate microcapsules were coated with polylysine and alginate to produce alginate-poly-l-lysine microcapsules. In-process contamination of the atomizing gas and microcapsules was investigated using modified USP sterility tests. Microcapsule size was determined using a light blockage technique (Accusizer) which measures both number and volume weighted mean diameters. The microcapsules prepared passed a modified USP sterility test, and the Bellco Bioreactor was found to minimize the possibilities of environmental contamination and therefore enhanced operator safety. The flow rate of the atomizing gas was determined to significantly alter number and volume weighted mean microcapsule diameters. Statistical analysis indicated that the number weighted mean diameters in conjunction with the volume weighted mean diameters can be used to detect batch-to-batch changes in microcapsule diameters. In conclusion, the modified Bellco Bioreactor offers a novel approach for producing sterile alginate-polylysine microcapsules on a laboratory scale.

Alginates↗

PubMed1998

Preparation and evaluation of beads made of different calcium alginate compositions for oral sustained release of tiaramide.

This study was undertaken to develop a sustained-release formulation of tiaramide (TAM), a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug with a short half-life, using alginate of different chemical compositions. Alginate gel beads containing TAM were prepared using a gelation of alginate with calcium cations. Bead performance was evaluated in vitro for different dissolution media and beads were also subjected to coating. TAM release was dependent both on its solubility in dissolution medium and the guluronate residue content of the alginate used. The release rate was in the following order: in pH 1.2 > pH 6.8 > water. The fast release rate in pH 1.2 is the result of the high solubility of TAM in acidic medium. Beads based on alginate rich in guluronate residue had the lowest release rate, which can be attributed to the compact structure formed by guluronate residues through cooperative interaction with calcium ions. Alginate beads were administered to beagle dogs, and pharmacokinetic parameters (mean residence time [MRT], tmax, Cmax, and AUC) were calculated. In vivo results were in good agreement with in vitro dissolution characteristics. Beads with high guluronate content gave the best controlled results. In addition, coated beads showed a more satisfactory sustained-release pattern. Calcium alginate appears to be a potential carrier for controlling drug release rate, even for water-soluble drugs such as TAM.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1998

External versus internal source of calcium during the gelation of alginate beads for DNA encapsulation.

Alginate gels produced by an external or internal gelation technique were studied so as to determine the optimal bead matrix within which DNA can be immobilized for in vivo application. Alginates were characterized for guluronic/mannuronic acid (G/M) content and average molecular weight using 1H-NMR and LALLS analysis, respectively. Nonhomogeneous calcium, alginate, and DNA distributions were found within gels made by the external gelation method because of the external calcium source used. In contrast, the internal gelation method produces more uniform gels. Sodium was determined to exchange for calcium ions at a ratio of 2:1 and the levels of calcium complexation with alginate appears related to bead strength and integrity. The encapsulation yield of double-stranded DNA was over 97% and 80%, respectively, for beads formed using external and internal calcium gelation methods, regardless of the composition of alginate. Homogeneous gels formed by internal gelation absorbed half as much DNAse as compared with heterogeneous gels formed by external gelation. Testing of bead weight changes during formation, storage, and simulated gastrointestinal (GI) conditions (pH 1.2 and 7.0) showed that high alginate concentration, high G content, and homogeneous gels (internal gelation) result in the lowest bead shrinkage and alginate leakage. These characteristics appear best suited for stabilizing DNA during GI transit.

Alginates↗

PubMed2002

Efficacy and tolerance of calcium alginate versus vaseline gauze dressings in the treatment of diabetic foot lesions.

BACKGROUND: The study aimed at comparing the efficacy and tolerance of an alginate wound dressing with a vaseline gauze dressing in the treatment of diabetic foot lesions. METHODS: This open-label randomized multicenter controlled study was designed to assess the effect of an up to 6-week treatment with either calcium alginate or vaseline gauze dressings. Lesions were either acute or chronic, under cleansing, and with a surface area of 1-50 cm(2); osteomyelitis and severe hypovascularization were non-inclusion criteria. Dressings were changed every day then, once granulation had occurred, every 2 to 3 days. Primary outcome was the proportion of patients with granulation tissue over 75% of the wound area and having a 40% decrease in wound surface area; secondary outcomes were pain on dressing changes, the number of dressing changes, and adverse events. RESULTS: Seventy-seven patients were enrolled. Due to the premature cessation of treatment in 13 patients, it was decided to reduce the period of the efficacy analysis to 4 weeks (without revising the criteria of efficacy). The success rate was of 42.8% in the calcium alginate group and of 28.5% in the vaseline gauze group (not significant difference). A subsequent analysis of granulation tissue surfaces covering the wounds at week 4 (all surfaces taken together) showed a superiority of calcium alginate (p=0.04). Pain on dressing change was lower in the calcium alginate group (p=0.047) and the total number of dressing changes tended also to be lower (p=0.07). Adverse events, which occurred 4 times in the calcium alginate group and 6 times in the other, were judged independent of the treatments. CONCLUSIONS: As compared with vaseline gauze, calcium alginate appears to be more appropriate for topical treatment of diabetic foot lesions in terms of both healing and tolerance.

Age of Onset↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Alginate-diltiazem hydrochloride beads: optimization of formulation factors, in vitro and in vivo availability.

Alginate beads containing diltiazem hydrochloride (DTZ) were prepared by the ionotropic gelation method. The effects of various factors (alginate concentration, additives type, calcium chloride concentration and curing time) on the efficiency of drug loading were investigated. The formulation containing a mixture of 0.8% methylcellulose (MC) and 4% alginate cured in 2% calcium chloride for 6 h was chosen as the best formula regarding the loading efficiency. The release rate of DTZ from various beads formulations was investigated. The release of drug from alginate beads followed two mechanisms; by diffusion and relaxation of the polymer at pH 1.2, whilst diffusion and erosion are at pH 6.8. The in vitro release of DTZ from MC-alginate beads showed an extended release pattern which was compared with that from commercially available sustained-release (Dilzem SR) and fast release tablets (Dilzem). Thermal analysis revealed that the drug was molecularly dispersed in the beads matrix. Although the release characteristics of DTZ from Dilzem SR and MC-alginate beads were completely different, the bioavailability of DTZ in dogs was comparable as measured by AUC, MRT and relative bioavailability. The absolute bioavailability of MC-alginate beads and Dilzem SR was 88 and 93%, respectively.

Alginates↗

PubMed1992

Lung infection with alginate-producing, mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa in cystic fibrosis.

Progressive pulmonary insufficiency is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with the inherited disease cystic fibrosis. The basic defect involves a disturbed ion transport across cells, but it is not known how this leads to the airways becoming highly susceptible to recurrent respiratory tract infection with S. aureus, H. influenzae and P. aeruginosa as the dominating pathogens. P. aeruginosa is not a primary pathogen in CF and some degree of lung damage generally has taken place before colonization begins at approximately 10 years of age. Cross-infection occurs and the incidence of P. aeruginosa infection can be reduced by interrupting person-to-person spread. P. aeruginosa infection is a chronic infection that is never permanently eradicated. However, intensive antipseudomonal chemotherapy has contributed to improved survival rates. 90% of patients remain alive more than 10 years after onset of chronic P. aeruginosa and, on an average, they can maintain an almost unchanged lung function during that period. Diagnosis of chronic infection rests on bacteriological examination and demonstration of a specific antibody response. Immunological assays to detect an early antibody response were developed. It is characteristic, but not specific for CF, that chronic lung infection is caused by alginate producing mucoid P. aeruginosa. Alginate biosynthesis is under complex genetic control and possibly regulated by environmental factors. Alginate was purified from mucoid P. aeruginosa and characterized and it was shown to be immunologically heterogenous. It is generally assumed that the infection begins with strains that are nonmucoid, but serological analysis show that these strains probably also produce the mucoid substance, alginate, in vivo. Patients infected with mucoid strains demonstrate a significantly higher antibody response to all P. aeruginosa antigens and have a lower lung function when compared to patients infected with nonmucoid strains. Despite the pronounced humoral antibody response efficient immune clearance of P. aeruginosa does not occur. Mucoid P. aeruginosa are organisms that are deficient in most of the classical virulence factors. In vivo it grows in a protected biofilm as mucoid microcolonies, where bacteria are enmeshed in a loosely bound, highly hydrated extracellular matrix of alginate. Purified alginate was shown to inhibit chemotaxis of neutrophil leukocytes and unable to activate complement. A deficient SIgA antibody response to alginate has been observed in bronchial secretions and it was hypothesized to be associated with the epithelial transport defect.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Alginates↗

PubMed2003

Effects of ascorbic acid on proliferation and biological properties of bovine chondrocytes in alginate beads.

Bovine chondrocytes were cultured in monolayers and alginate beads with or without ascorbic acid (Asc) for 16 days. Cell proliferation was examined every 4 days by staining with Hoechst 33258 dye. The gene expression of aggrecan, and collagen type I and II was analyzed at 16 days by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction. Cell morphology and the production of extracellular matrix (ECM) were evaluated by cytochemical, immunocytochemical and electron microscopical methods. Cells were continuously cultured in alginate beads with Asc for 2 months, and the cell morphology and ECM were examined. The proliferation of chondrocytes was significantly stimulated with Asc in both monolayers and alginate beads at 16 days. Expression of the collagen type I gene in both cultures was increased, and that of the collagen type II gene in alginate beads was decreased, by Asc. There were no significant cytochemical and immunocytochemical differences between the cultures in alginate beads with or without Asc at 16 days. In alginate beads cultured with Asc for 2 months, proliferating cells were observed mainly at the periphery of the beads, and glycosaminoglycan and collagen type II were found around the cells. These results suggest that Asc stimulated the proliferation of chondrocytes and maintained the chondrogenic properties of the cells in an alginate beads culture.

Aggrecans↗

PubMed1984

A historical review of hydrocolloids and an investigation of the dimensional accuracy of the new alginates for crown and bridge impressions when using stock trays.

Reversible hydrocolloids have been used since 1937 and irreversible hydrocolloids since 1947 for the making of impressions for fixed prostheses; the impression techniques were similar to today's. The dimensional accuracy of reproduction of the irreversible hydrocolloids has been proved since 1947. In this paper the dimensional accuracy of three new alginates, Algi -X ( Algiflex Super, Howmedica Alginate), Ardent Alginate, Ultrafine and a combination material, Colloid 80/ Algiace ( Dentloid / Algiace ) were compared to two agar hydrocolloids and an addition silicone, when different stock trays were used as in the dental clinic. In most clinical situations the new alginates used in metal stock trays are as accurate as the "old" impression materials. The combination material is less accurate when many abutment preparations are to be reproduced. Whether perforated or nonperforated metal stock trays are used with the alginates is of no consequence to the accuracy. Alginates used in disposable plastic trays may cause severe inaccuracy. In narrow spaces with severe unblocked undercuts some of the alginates may be inferior to the other impression materials in this study.

Agar↗

PubMed1993

Alginate may accumulate in cystic fibrosis lung because the enzymatic and free radical capacities of phagocytic cells are inadequate for its degradation.

We sought an explanation for the accumulation, and apparent poor degradation by alveolar phagocytes, of alginate in cystic fibrosis lung. A crude intracellular lyase preparation extracted from Klebsiella pneumoniae was able to degrade seaweed alginic acid as well as forms purified from Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria from Cystic Fibrosis (CF) patient lungs. This was by a beta-eliminative mechanism, as detected by an increase in the 232nm absorbance and activity was enhanced by deacetylation of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa alginates. Conditioned media or cell lysates from unstimulated or triggered phagocytic cells (including resident mouse peritoneal macrophages and the human macrophage cell line U937) had no effect in the same system. Free radicals generated by chemical systems or by gamma irradiation of water degraded alginate. Depolymerisation by free radicals, as detected by viscosity determinations and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, generated a wide range of fragment sizes. In contrast, mouse peritoneal macrophages or human polymorphonuclear neutrophils stimulated to generate free radicals had no significant effect on alginate. Under the conditions of our experiments, phagocytic cells representative of the CF lung are not able to degrade Pseudomonas aeruginosa alginate. This may explain the gross accumulation of alginate in CF lung.

Alginates↗

PubMed1996

Transplantation of parathyroid tissue in experimental hypoparathyroidism: in vitro and in vivo function of parathyroid tissue microencapsulated with a novel amitogenic alginate.

Microencapsulation of tissues is an alternative to postoperative immunosuppression in transplantation. In 1994 iso-, allo- and xenotransplantation of microencapsulated parathyroid tissue was achieved in vivo. However, continued analysis of the coating substance (an alginate) determined mitogenic properties. Here, we report on the in vitro and in vivo function of parathyroid tissue microencapsulated with a novel amitogenic alginate suitable for use in humans. To assess in vitro function, parathyroid tissue encapsulated with mitogenic and amitogenic alginate was exposed to rising concentrations of calcium. For in vivo experiments, it was isotransplanted into parathyroidectomized rats. PTH release into medium and PTH serum levels as well as calcium levels of recipient rats were analyzed and compared to native (non-microencapsulated) tissue and empty capsules, respectively. In vivo, transplants were excised and subjected to histologic examination six months after trans-plantation. In vitro, parathyroid tissue encapsulated with amitogenic alginate releases approximately half of the PTH of the native tissue, not different from tissue encapsulated with the mitogenic alginate. In vivo, the novel alginate preserved parathyroid function similar to that of native tissue over the six month period resulting in complete reversal of hypoparathyroidism. Correspondingly, histologic examination revealed vital parathyroid tissue in intact microcapsules. By establishing in vitro function and successful long-term transplantation, we have documented the principle of microencapsulation of parathyroid tissue to be effective also with the novel amitogenic alginate, which is suitable for clinical use.

Alginates↗

PubMed1998

The separation of alginate biosynthesis and acetylation in Pseudomonas syringae.

Seaweed alginate was acetylated by resting cells of Pseudomonas syringae subsp. phaseolicola ATCC 19304. Physiological studies on this strain and its UV-induced mutants showed no correlation between bacterial alginate biosynthesis and acetylation. Specific yields of alginate and degree of acetylation in these polymers varied with strain and culture medium. This was indirect evidence that alginate biosynthesis is separate from polysaccharide acetylation. It indicated that the enzyme system involved in alginate biosynthesis was not directly linked to alginate acetylation and explained why microbial acetylation of seaweed alginates was possible.

Acetylation↗

PubMed1998

Cartilage formation by fetal rat chondrocytes cultured in alginate beads: a proposed model for investigating tissue-biomaterial interactions.

Chondrocytes from 21-day-old rat fetal nasal cartilage were cultured in alginate beads for up to 20 days. It was found that chondrocytes retained their spherical shape and typical chondrocytic appearance. During the culture time, chondrocytes underwent differentiation, as demonstrated by the alkaline phosphatase-specific activity and rate of proteoglycan synthesis. Morphological data confirmed chondrocyte differentiation with the appearance of hypertrophic chondrocytes scattered in the alginate gel and a dense extracellular matrix containing filamentous structures and matrix vesicles. In addition, Northern blot analysis performed on day 8 of culture showed that chondrocytes cultured in alginate beads expressed type II collagen mRNA. The alginate bead method also appeared to be suitable for testing biomaterials, and the ready dissolution of the alginate beads by chelating agents provided a simple means for the rapid recovery of encapsulated chondrocytes. Powdered glass-ceramic particles entrapped in the alginate gel were colonized by chondrocytes, which then proliferated and formed a tissue similar to a true calcified cartilaginous structure. These results indicate that the alginate system represents a relevant model for studies of chondrogenesis and endochondral ossification. Furthermore, the encapsulation method could prove useful for studies of tissue-biomaterial interactions in an in vitro environment which more closely mirrors the cartilage matrix than other culture methods.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Cloning and sequencing analysis of alginate lyase genes from the marine bacterium Vibrio sp. O2.

We isolated a new marine bacteria, which displayed alginate-depolymerizing activity in plate assays, from seawater in Mihonoseki Harbor, Japan. Analysis of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequence of one of the isolates proved that this alginate-depolymerizing bacterium belonged to the genus Vibrio and it was named Vibrio sp. O2. The alginate lyase genes of Vibrio sp. O2 were cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. Two alginate lyase-producing clones, pVOA-A4 and pVOA-B5, were obtained. The alginate lyase gene alyVOA from pVOA-A4 was composed of an 858-bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding 285 amino acid residues, while alyVOB from pVOA-B5 was composed of an 828-bp ORF encoding 275 amino acid residues. The degree of identity between the deduced amino acid sequences of AlyVOA or AlyVOB and Photobacterium sp. ATCC43367 alginate poly(ManA)lyase AlxM was 92.3% or 32.6%, respectively. Alginate lyase consensus regions corresponding to the sequences YFKAGXYXQ and RXELR were observed in all three of these sequences. AlyVOA and AlyVOB both degraded polymannuronate in plate assays and were therefore confirmed to be poly(beta-D-mannuronate)lyases.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2006

Synthesis and characterization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa alginate-tetanus toxoid conjugate.

Chronic infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the main proven perpetrator of lung function decline and ultimate mortality in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Mucoid strains of this bacterium elaborate mucoid exopolysaccharide, also referred to as alginate. Alginate-based immunization of naïve animals elicits opsonic antibodies and leads to clearance of mucoid P. aeruginosa from the lungs. Alginate was isolated from mucoid P. aeruginosa strain 8821M by repeated ethanol precipitation, dialysis, proteinase and nuclease digestion, and chromatography. To improve immunogenicity, the purified antigen was coupled to tetanus toxoid (TT) with adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH) as a spacer and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-carbodiimide (EDAC) as a linker. The reaction mixture was passed through a Sepharose CL-4B column. The resulting conjugate was composed of TT and large-size alginate polymer at a ratio of about 3 : 1; it was non-toxic and non-pyrogenic, and elicited high titres of alginate-specific IgG. Antisera raised against the conjugate had high opsonic activity against the vaccine strain. The alginate conjugate was also able to protect mice against a lethal dose of mucoid P. aeruginosa. These data indicate that an alginate-based vaccine has significant potential to protect against chronic infection with mucoid P. aeruginosa in the CF host.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Alginate production by plant-pathogenic pseudomonads.

Eighteen plant-pathogenic and three non-plant-pathogenic pseudomonads were tested for the ability to produce alginic acid as an exopolysaccharide in vitro. Alginate production was demonstrated for 10 of 13 fluorescent plant-pathogenic pseudomonads tested with glucose or gluconate as the carbon source, but not for all 5 nonfluorescent plant pathogens and all 3 non-plant pathogens tested. With sucrose as the carbon source, some strains produced alginate while others produced both polyfructan (levan) and alginate. Alginates ranged from <1 to 28% guluronic acid, were acetylated, and had number-average molecular weights of 11.3 x 10 to 47.1 x 10. Polyfructans and alginates were not elicitors of the soybean phytoalexin glyceollin when applied to wounded cotyledon surfaces and did not induce prolonged water soaking of soybean leaf tissues. All or most pseudomonads in rRNA-DNA homology group I may be capable of synthesizing alginate as an exopolysaccharide.

Journal Article↗