Berson test for blue cone monochromatism.
The Berson test for blue cone monochromatism discriminates X-linked blue cone monochromatism from achromatopsia but not from X-linked progressive c dystrophy.
Color Perception Tests↗
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Color vision screening for individuals with intellectual disabilities: a comparison between the Neitz Test of Color Vision and Color Vision Testing Made Easy.
BACKGROUND: The Neitz Test of Color Vision (Neitz) and Color Vision Testing Made Easy(trade mark) (CVTME) were compared to determine which test was more effective in evaluating patients with intellectual disability (i.e., mental retardation) and developmental delay. METHODS: Two hundred eight Special Olympics floor hockey athletes were screened in San Diego, California, and 93 athletes were screened in Long Beach, California for a total of 301 athletes. Each athlete was administered the CVTME and the Neitz tests. RESULTS: The pass rate for the CVTME was 94.6% (n = 93) at Long Beach and 96.2% (n = 208) at San Diego. Every athlete was able to complete the CVTME. The pass rate for the Neitz was 38.7% at Long Beach and 56.7% at San Diego. Additionally, 10.8% of the Long Beach athletes and 12.5% of the San Diego athletes were unable to understand the Neitz. In addition, there was a low level of agreement between the results from the 2 tests with kappa = 0.081 for the San Diego data and 0.028 for the Long Beach data. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that the CVTME continues to be the screening test of choice in evaluating color vision in individuals with intellectual disability. The Neitz had more failing scores on the first attempt and more total failing scores leading to over-referrals, making it an inappropriate screening test for individuals with intellectual disability and developmental delay.
Adolescent↗
Glaucoma, lighting and color vision. An investigation into their interrelationship.
The results of a study on color vision capacity performed with a view to further analyzing glaucomatous dyschromatopsia are reported. The Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test was used in a population of 52 subjects (104 eyes) with daylight fluorescent lighting and low-tension halogen lighting. Photocolorimetric observations with each type of lighting were made. It was found that halogen lighting increased the glaucomatous subjects' mean score, the number of dyschromatopsia and the number of blue-yellow dyschromatopsia axes. The authors conclude that halogen lighting is preferable for the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test in glaucoma and confirm the predominance of blue-yellow dyschromatopsia axes in glaucoma.
Chronic Disease↗
Color vision testing for the U.S. Naval Academy.
Normal color vision is a prerequisite for admission to the United States Naval Academy. The Farnsworth Lantern (FALANT) is the Navy's definitive test for color vision. A FALANT is not available at many locations where candidates are examined, so satisfactory performance on pseudoisochromatic plates has been considered an acceptable alternative. Until recently, the Farnsworth Dichotomous Test Panel D-15 had also been used as an alternative test, but is now considered unacceptable. In the summer of 1991, a large number of candidates reported for induction who were unable to pass the FALANT. Since their screening physical examinations had been reported to show normal color vision, a shadow of doubt was cast upon the ability of the alternative tests to predict performance on the FALANT. Four hundred subjects were then tested on several color vision tests to determine if these tests could predict FALANT success. The results of this study and recommendations are presented.
Adolescent↗
Contrast/color card procedure: a new test of young infants' color vision.
We have developed a new test which can rapidly evaluate basic color vision in individual infants. The test consists of a series of large cards constructed with Munsell Hues. It uses a modified preferential looking procedure (FPL) and, to control brightness cues, incorporates a two-phase systematic variation of luminance. First, we evaluate an infant's ability to discriminate 9.5 by 16 degrees achromatic patches of varying luminance from a 26 by 65 degrees achromatic background of midrange luminance. In the second phase the test patch is chromatic and its luminance, relative to the background, is varied over a range of about 1.0 log cd/m2. The number of relative luminances chosen for each infant depends upon his/her performance in phase 1. Seventy 2- and 3-month-olds were tested with 4 broad-band chromatic patches, a red (dominant lambda = 660 nm), a yellow (dominant lambda = 580 nm), a green (dominant lambda = 520 nm), and a blue (dominant lambda = 475 nm). Results showed that 3-month-olds had little difficulty making any of the chromatic-achromatic discriminations but many 2-month-olds appeared to fail to discriminate the yellow and green from the background at relative luminances close to an adult brightness match. Most importantly, the test shows promise as a relatively simple, time-efficient, and portable tool for the assessment of early color vision.
Color Perception Tests↗
[Panel D-15 test under reduced illumination for persons with color vision defects].
We evaluated the panel D-15 test under reduced illumination in subjects with color vision deficiency and in normal subjects. Forty subjects with color vision deficiency (3 protanopes, 10 protanomalies, 10 deuteranopes, 7 extreme deuteranomalies and 10 deuteranomalies) and 10 normal subjects were the subjects for the experiment. Seven light levels ranging from 0.9 to 900 lux were used. All normal subjects passed the test at 3.5 lux or more and 30% failed at 0.9 lux. Color vision defective subjects began to fail the test at 225 lux, with 56% failing at 3.5 lux and 92% at 0.9 lux. The performance on the panel D-15 test decreased in proportion to decreasing the illumination in some color vision defective subjects. Some protanomalous subjects showed a deutan pattern at low illumination levels.
Adolescent↗
Color vision.
Many visual disorders produce acquired color vision defects. Color vision theory emphasizes several stages of visual processing: prereceptoral filters (lens, macular pigment, pupil), cone photopigments (L-, M-, and S-cones), and postreceptoral processes (red-green, S-cone, and luminance channels). Congenital color defects, which affect 8% to 10% of males and 0.4% to 0.5% of females, result from alterations in the photopigment absorption spectra or the absence of one or more photopigments. The most common defects are color vision deficiencies (protan and deutan defects), which are milder than the rarer achromatopsias (complete loss of color vision). Acquired color vision defects can be attributed to a number of different causes: alteration of prereceptoral filters, reduced cone photopigment optical density, greater loss of one cone type than the others, and disruption of postreceptoral processes. Acquired color vision defects have been divided into three classes: type 1, red-green defect with scotopization; type 2, red-green defect without scotopization; and type 3, blue defects (with or without pseudoprotanomaly). Blue defects are usually type 3 acquired defects because congenital tritan defects have an incidence of one in several tens of thousands. Red-green defects can be acquired or congenital, and ruling out acquired defects can require a battery of tests (plates and arrangement tests, anomaloscopy, perhaps genetic analysis). Color vision tests must be administered carefully (with a standard illuminant and protocol), and pupillary miosis or high lens density should be noted and their possible effects considered when interpreting test results. Plate tests provide a simple screening method but do not provide a diagnosis. Arrangement tests and anomaloscope testing take more time and make greater demands on the tester, but they provide a more thorough evaluation. When standard protocols are followed and results are interpreted in terms of prereceptoral filters, photopigment optical density, cone loss, and disruption of postreceptoral processes, a battery of color vision tests can be useful in the differential diagnosis, after progression of the disease, and for evaluating the effectiveness of treatment.
Color Perception↗
Clinical vision characteristics of the congenital achromatopsias. II. Color vision.
Twelve X-linked (XL) achromats and 43 autosomal recessive (AR) achromats were tested using the Farnsworth D-15, Nagel anomaloscope, Sloan achromatopsia test, and Berson test using standard procedures. All of the tests identify achromatopsia, but very few differentially diagnose the various types. AR achromats were subclassified as complete (rods only) or incomplete (residual cone function present) by additional psychophysical testing. Complete and incomplete ARs do not perform differently on any clinical color vision measure, indicating that (1) rods predominantly mediate vision in both groups and (2) these tests are not useful for distinguishing between the groups. Both groups show considerable interindividual variation on all measures. Only one of the measures, the Berson test, designed to distinguish XLs from ARs, does so reliably. XLs and ARs do not differ significantly on the Nagel anomaloscope or most of the Sloan plates. The confusion angles of the D-15 do differ for the two groups, but the variability in each group makes the measure unreliable for classifying individuals. The Berson test is recommended to distinguish the XL from AR achromats.
Adolescent↗
Acquired 'tritan' deficiencies in macular pathology.
14 patients with maculopathy (18 eyes affected, 10 eyes clinically normal) were examined using the HRR plates, the Farnsworth F2 (tritan) plate, the Farnsworth panel D15 test, the Nagel anomaloscope (model I) and on a 'blue-green' equation for 2 degrees and 11 degrees fields on the Moreland anomaloscope. The correlation of tritan-like responses to each test and the differences between the 2 degrees and 11 degrees equations are discussed.
Adult↗
Colorimetry by a new principle.
A simple and informative method is described for determining the type and extent of color defects. The subjects' responses are registered automatically on a chromaticity diagram that is based on the newtonian model. Color defects are readily identifiable by a skewing of the normal central gray area toward the defectively perceived color. The examination permits independent variation of hue and saturation for each color and requires less than five minutes for the entire procedure. Unlike conventional color tests, the present method indicates exactly what colors are or are not seen at any level of saturation.
Adolescent↗
[Comparison of test results of Panel D-15 with a 2 degrees visual field and on 8 degrees visual field].
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Color Perception↗
Comparison of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue, the Farnsworth D-15, and the L'Anthony D-15 desaturated color tests.
OBJECTIVE: The Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue, the Farnsworth D-15, and the L'Anthony D-15 desaturated color tests were administered to patients with glaucoma to determine whether the D-15 or D-15 desaturated color tests could be used to predict performance on the 100-Hue test in clinical populations. METHODS: The three color tests were administered to 35 patients with glaucoma. The results were analyzed using the method of Vingrys and King-Smith that calculates an angle (type of color loss) score, S-index (measure of the randomness of cap arrangement), and a C-index (a measure of the severity of color loss) based on the cap arrangement. RESULTS: The 100-Hue error score was significantly related to the D-15 and D-15 desaturated C-indexes. Furthermore, the 100-Hue S-index could be predicted from the D-15 or D-15 desaturated S-indexes. The 100-Hue angle could not be predicted from the D-15 or D-15 desaturated color tests. CONCLUSIONS: The D-15 desaturated color test (which requires significantly less time to administer) may be used to assess the severity of color vision deficit in some patient populations.
Color Perception Tests↗
Detection of color vision defects in chloroquine retinopathy.
OBJECTIVE: The effect of chloroquine toxicity on color vision is unclear. The authors identified the color defects seen in chloroquine retinopathy and determined the sensitivity and specificity of clinical color vision tests for detecting the presence of previously diagnosed chloroquine retinopathy. DESIGN: Case-control study. PARTICIPANTS: Chloroquine retinopathy was defined using previously published criteria. Data from 30 patients with retinopathy and 25 patients using chloroquine but with no evidence of retinal toxicity were collected. METHODS: All patients were tested with the following six clinical color vision tests: Ishihara, Farnsworth D-15, and Adams Desaturated-15 (Dsat-15), City University 2nd Edition (CU), Standard Pseudoisochromatic Plates Part 2 (SPP-2), and American Optical Hardy Rand Rittler (AO HRR). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The number of failures was determined for each test. The types of color vision defects were classified as blue-yellow (BY), red-green (RG), or mixed RG and BY (mixed). RESULTS: Of the 30 patients with retinopathy, 28 (93.3%) of 30 patients failed at least 1 color vision test, demonstrating predominantly mixed defects. Five (25%) of 25 of the control subjects failed at least 1 test, and these defects were predominantly BY. The sensitivity and specificity of the tests are as follows: SPP-2 (93.3%, 88%), AO HRR (76.7%, 88%), Ishihara (43.3%, 96%), Dsat-15 (33.3%, 84%), D-15 (16.7%, 96%), and CU (20%, 92%). CONCLUSIONS: Color vision can be affected by chloroquine and should be tested routinely with a color vision test designed to detect both mild BY and protan RG defects to maximize sensitivity for toxicity. The SPP-2 and AO HRR are two tests that meet these criteria. The Ishihara has a low sensitivity, as do the D-15 tests and CU. All of the tests have similar specificity for chloroquine toxicity. If color vision defects are detected in patients at risk of developing chloroquine retinopathy, additional testing is indicated to rule out toxicity.
Adult↗
Discrepant results obtained with two versions of the Farnsworth Panel D-15 test in patients with acquired blue-yellow defects.
Two commercially available Panel D-15 tests were administered to two patients with acquired blue-yellow defects. The results obtained with each test were different and apparently influenced by the cap construction which is the only difference between the two tests. In one test the surface of the cap is concave and polished while in the other test the cap surface is flat and has a matte or dull finish. The mechanism accounting for the different results is not obvious.
Adult↗
Ability of deutan color defectives to perform simulated air traffic control tasks.
Air traffic controllers perform a variety of tasks which require them to identify, discriminate, and name colors. Qualification standards for this occupation require applicants and incumbents to have normal color vision. The validity of this standard has been questioned and is currently under review. In this study, 22 deutans and 78 normals were tested on a set of tasks which simulated critical tasks performed daily by air traffic controllers. The four tasks included discriminating red from black pencil marks on flight progress strips, color-naming of 1 degree and 0.1 degree discs, and identification of colored line segments embedded in a multicolored background. Deutans classified as mild were found to perform all tasks as well as normals. Moderate deutans performed only the large disc color-naming task as well as normals, whereas severe deutans performed none of the tasks as well as normals. Different methods for scoring the color vision tests were explored to determine their value as predictors of task performance. The D-15 relative error score was found to be the single best predictor of performance on the tasks (r-square = 0.602). It is concluded that mild deutan color defectives have adequate color vision for safe performance of several critical air traffic control tasks. Moderate and severe deutans do not. In addition, the results of several methods for scoring color vision tests can be used to predict group, but not individual, performance with high reliability.
Aviation↗
Frequency of colour vision deficiencies in melanoma patients: results of a prospective comparative screening study with the Farnsworth panel D 15 test including 300 melanoma patients and 100 healthy controls.
Patients with melanoma may experience a variety of different vision symptoms, in part associated with melanoma-associated retinopathy. For several melanoma patients with or without melanoma-associated retinopathy, colour vision deficiencies, especially involving the tritan system, have been reported. The frequency of colour vision deficiencies in a larger cohort of melanoma patients has not yet been investigated. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequency of colour vision deficiencies in melanoma patients subject to stage of disease, prognostic factors such as tumour thickness or Clark level, S100-beta and predisposing diseases that may have an impact on colour vision (hypertension, diabetes mellitus, glaucoma or cataract). Three hundred melanoma patients in different tumour stages and 100 healthy age-matched and sex-matched controls were examined with the saturated Farnsworth panel D 15 test. Seventy out of 300 (23.3%) melanoma patients and 12/100 (12%) controls showed pathologic results in colour testing. This discrepancy was significant (P < 0.016; odds ratio = 2.23, 95% confidence interval 1.15-4.32). Increasing age was identified as a highly significant (P = 0.0005) risk factor for blue vision deficiency. Adjusting for the age and predisposing diseases, we could show that melanoma was associated with the risk of blue vision deficiency. The frequency of blue vision deficiency in 52/260 melanoma patients without predisposing diseases (20%) compared with 4/78 controls without predisposing diseases (5.1%) differed significantly (odds ratio 4.441; confidence interval 1.54-12.62; P < 0.004). In 260 melanoma patients without predisposing diseases, blue vision deficiency, as graded on a 6-point scale, showed a weak positive correlation (Spearman) with tumour stage (r = 0.147; P < 0.01), tumour thickness (r = 0.10; P = 0.0035), Clark level (r = 0.12; P = 0.04) and a weak negative correlation with time since initial diagnosis (r = -0.11; P = 0.0455). Blue vision deficiency is associated with melanoma, but is only weakly related to stage of disease. Although we saw a positive correlation with well-known prognostic markers, such as tumour thickness and Clark level, blue vision deficiency as assessed by the Farnsworth panel D 15 test in general is inappropriate as a marker of tumour progression. For the use of blue vision deficiency in melanoma patients without predisposing diseases, a diligent test performance and interpretation is very important.
Adult↗
Testing of colour vision for vocational purposes.
All red-green defects of colour vision can be effectively screened with a combination of two pseudo- isochromatic tests. Severe (major) colour vision defects regarded as a serious handicap in all occupations needing colour naming ability can be quickly detected with the Panel D-15 dichotomous test. Only a trained ophthalmologist can make the detailed estimation of the type and degree of the colour vision defect with the aid of the anomaloscope and the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test. In the diagnosis of a congenital colour vision defect the exclusion of an eye disease with a consecutive acquired colour vision defect is important.
Color Perception Tests↗
[The Ohkuma's test: an evaluation].
Ohkuma's pseudoisochromatic test was evaluated in 147 subjects including 130 cases with hereditary dyschromatopsias, and compared with the color vision tests of Ishihara, the HRR, the Farnsworth Panel D-15 and the City University Color Vision Test. Qualitatively, Ohkuma's test was more exact for the diagnosis of the axis of the dyschromatopsia (protan or deutan); quantitatively, Ohkuma's test was of good efficiency for screening, but the quantitative gradation was mediocre, indicating dichromatism in only 3/4 of the cases.
Adolescent↗