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PubMed2003

Migration of 2-butoxyethyl acetate from polycarbonate infant feeding bottles.

An enforcement campaign was carried out to assess the migration of 2-butoxyethyl acetate (2-BEA) from polycarbonate infant feeding bottles intended for repeated use. Migration was measured by three successive migration tests into two of the European Union official food simulants: distilled water and 3% acetic acid testing at 40 degrees C for 10 days. The Danish Veterinary and Food Administration (DVFA) has assessed that a migration above 0.33 mg for 2-BEA and a group of eight related substances kg(-1) foodstuff from plastics articles used exclusively for infants is unacceptable. Migration of 2-BEA was found from eight of 12 bottles. However, migration above the target value of 0.33 mg kg(-1) was not observed in the third decisive test from any of the 12 different brands of polycarbonate feeding bottles. A migration of between 0.05 and 0.26 mg kg(-1) from seven of 12 bottles was measured to 3% acetic acid in the third test, whereas no migration to distilled water was observed in the third test. The average recovery of 2-BEA after the 10-day exposure at the target value of 0.33 mg kg(-1) was 77% into distilled water and 36% into 3% acetic acid. The limited recovery was understandable as 2-BEA was partly hydrolysed in the aqueous food simulants and 2-butoxyethanol, a hydrolysis product and one of the related substances was identified. Quantification was carried out using gas chromatography after liquid/liquid extraction of the food simulant.

Acetates↗

PubMed2005

Perfluorochemicals: potential sources of and migration from food packaging.

Perfluorochemicals are widely used in the manufacturing and processing of a vast array of consumer goods, including electrical wiring, clothing, household and automotive products. Furthermore, relatively small quantities of perfluorochemicals are also used in the manufacturing of food-contact substances that represent potential sources of oral exposure to these chemicals. The most recognizable products to consumers are the uses of perfluorochemicals in non-stick coatings (polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)) for cookware and also their use in paper coatings for oil and moisture resistance. Recent epidemiology studies have demonstrated the presence of two particular perfluorochemicals, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in human serum at very low part per billion levels. These perfluorochemicals are biopersistent and are the subject of numerous studies investigating the many possible sources of human exposure. Among the various uses of these two chemicals, PFOS is a residual impurity in some paper coatings used for food contact and PFOA is a processing aid in the manufacture of PTFE used for many purposes including non-stick cookware. Little information is available on the types of perfluorochemicals that have the potential to migrate from perfluoro coatings into food. One obstacle to studying migration is the difficulty in measuring perfluorochemicals by routine conventional analytical techniques such as GC/MS or LC-UV. Many perfluorochemicals used in food-contact substances are not detectable by these conventional methods. As liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) develops into a routine analytical technique, potential migrants from perfluoro coatings can be more easily characterized. In this paper, data will be presented on the types of perfluoro chemicals that are used in food packaging and cookware. Additionally, research will be presented on the migration or potential for migration of these chemicals into foods or food simulating liquids. Results from migration tests show mg kg(-1) amounts of perfluoro paper additives/coatings transfer to food oil. Analysis of PTFE cookware shows residual amounts of PFOA in the low microg kg(-1) range. PFOA is present in microwave popcorn bag paper at amounts as high as 300 microg kg(-1).

Caprylates↗

PubMed2006

Migration of formaldehyde and melamine monomers from kitchen- and tableware made of melamine plastic.

Migration of one or both formaldehyde and/or melamine monomers was found in seven of ten tested melamine samples bought on the Danish market. The samples were a bowl, a jug, a mug, a ladle, and different cups and plates. No violation of the European Union-specific migration limits for melamine (30 mg kg-1) and formaldehyde (15 mg kg-1) was found after three successive exposures to the food stimulant 3% acetic acid after 2 h at 70 degrees Celsius. To investigate the effects of long-term use, migration tests were performed with two types of cups from a day nursery. Furthermore, medium-term use was studied by ten successive exposures of a plate to 3% acetic acid for 30 min at 95 degrees Celsius. The results indicate that continuous migration of formaldehyde and melamine takes place during the lifetime of these articles. The molar ratio of released formaldehyde to melamine was seen to decrease from 12 to about 5. This indicates that, first, the migration of residual monomers is most important, but in the long-term, breakdown of the polymer dominates. Two CEN methods were used to determine the concentration of monomers: a spectrophotometric method for formaldehyde and a UV-HPLC method for melamine.

Cooking and Eating Utensils↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Release of formaldehyde and melamine from tableware made of melamine-formaldehyde resin.

The relationship between the concentrations of formaldehyde and melamine released into 4% acetic acid from dishes and bowls made of melamine-formaldehyde resin was determined. The average concentrations in the migration solution after the sample had been treated at 60, 80, and 95 degrees C for 30 min with 4% acetic acid were 0.0 +/- 0.1, 0.5 +/- 0.4 and 3.0 +/- 2.2 ppm, respectively for formaldehyde and 0.04 +/- 0.07, 0.21 +/- 0.20 and 1.19 +/- 1.18 ppm, respectively for melamine. The correlation between the concentrations of formaldehyde and melamine released at 95 degrees C was y=0.4858x-0.2728 (r=0.8860), where y is melamine concentration (ppm), x is formaldehyde concentration (ppm) and r is the correlation coefficient. The molar concentration ratios of formaldehyde to melamine (F/M ratio) were 15.4 +/- 11.6 at 80 degrees C and 14.9 +/- 10.1 at 95 degrees C. Hence the release of both migrants was affected by temperature but the F/M ratio was not affected. The release of both compounds was was increased on repetition of the migration test at 95 degrees C but their concentrations remained constant after the tenth and seventeenth repetitions of the treatment. During this period, the F/M ratio decreased according to the equation 1n y=-1.4344 1n x+3.7814 (r=-0.9984) for a sample before the tenth repetition of the treatment and remained between 1.7 and 1.9 after the twelfth repetition, where y is the F/M ratio and x is the number of repetitions of the treatment.

Acetates↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Headspace analysis of benzene in food contact materials and its migration into foods from plastics cookware.

Concentrations of benzene of 29 and 64 mg/kg were found in two samples of thermoset polyester compounded for the manufacture of plastic cookware. In collaboration with the suppliers of the materials, it was established that the benzene originated from the use of t-butyl perbenzoate used as an initiator in the manufacture of the polymer. Samples of thermoset polyester made to the original formulations and thus contaminated with benzene showed migration levels of 1.9 and 5.6 mg/kg in olive oil after extraction for 1 hour at 175 degrees C. Migration levels into olive oil at 175 degrees C for samples produced with non-aromatic initiator were less than 0.1 mg/kg. Concentrations of benzene in thermoset polyester cookware purchased from retail outlets were 0.3 to 84.7 mg/kg. Low amounts of benzene (less than 0.01 to 0.09 mg/kg) were detected in foods when the articles were used for cooking in microwave or conventional ovens. Other plastics used for retail food packaging, such as polystyrene and PVC, which might utilise t-butyl perbenzoate catalyst, were also analysed for benzene. Levels were mostly below 0.1 mg/kg, with the highest amounts detected being from 0.2 to 1.7 mg/kg, predominantly in articles of expanded polystyrene.

Benzene↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Migration testing of plastics and microwave-active materials for high-temperature food-use applications.

Temperatures have been measured using a fluoro-optic probe at the food/container or food/packaging interfaces as appropriate, for a range of foods heated in either a microwave or a conventional oven. Reheating ready-prepared foods packaged in plastics pouches, trays or dishes in the microwave oven, according to the manufacturers' instructions, resulted in temperatures in the range 61-121 degrees C. Microwave-active materials (susceptors) in contact with ready-prepared foods frequently reached local spot temperatures above 200 degrees C. For foods cooked in a microwave oven according to published recipes, temperatures from 91 degrees C to 200 degrees C were recorded, whilst similar temperatures (92-194 degrees C) were attained in a conventional oven, but over longer periods of time. These measurements form the basis for examining compliance with specific and overall migration limits for plastics materials. The testing conditions proposed depend on the intended use of the plastic - for microwave oven use for aqueous foods, for all lidding materials, and for reheating of foods, testing would only be required with aqueous simulants for 1 h at 100 degrees C; for unspecified microwave oven use, testing with olive oil would be required for 30 min at 150 degrees C; and for unspecified use in a conventional oven testing with olive oil would be required for 2 h at 175 degrees C. For microwave-active materials, it is proposed that testing is carried out in the microwave oven using a novel semi-solid simulant comprising olive oil and water absorbed onto an inert support of diatomaceous earth. The testing in this instance is carried out with the simulant instead of food in a package and heating in the microwave oven at 600 W for 4 min for every 100 g of simulant employed. There is an option in every case to test for migration using real foods rather than simulants if it can be demonstrated that results using simulants are unrepresentative of those for foods. The proposed testing conditions were validated as being realistic by measurement of the specific migration of various components from different plastics into foods under actual conditions of use and comparing with migration into simulants. Migration of plasticizers from PVC and VC/VDC copolymer films was monitored for both microwave reheating and cooking of foods. Total oligomer concentrations were measured from poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) trays, and volatile aromatics from thermoset polyester trays, using both types of container in microwave and conventional ovens.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adipates↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Migration into food of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) cyclic oligomers from PET microwave susceptor packaging.

A quantitative method has been developed to measure the migration of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) cyclic oligomers from aluminized PET susceptor film-type food packaging into several food types. Microwaveable French fries, popcorn, fish sticks, waffles and pizza sold in susceptor-type packaging were purchased in local markets, cooked according to package instructions and analysed for PET oligomers. Appropriate food blanks were cooked in glass containers. Quantities of PET oligomers found in the foods ranged from less than 0.012 micrograms/g to approximately 7 micrograms/g.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Leaching of aluminium from aluminium dishes and packages.

A study was carried out of the leaching of aluminium from aluminium cooking vessels and packages. Very small or undetectable levels of aluminium leached from packaging materials into foodstuffs. In boiling tests with neutral porridge no migration of aluminium into the test matrix was observed from the pan. When boiling milk, the leaching of aluminium was 0.2-0.8 mg/kg. The aluminium content of tap water in aluminium pans when reaching boiling point was 0.54-4.3 mg/l and increased with increasing boiling time to 6.3-17 mg/l. Aluminium dissolved in foods based on acidic fruit juice rose to levels of 2.9-35 mg/kg when the foods were boiled in aluminium pans. Steaming of currant berries in an aluminium vessel gave aluminium concentrations of 19-77 mg/kg in the resulting juice. The highest aluminium concentration of 170 mg/kg was measured in rhubarb juice prepared in the steaming vessel. Aluminium dissolved in water to levels of 0.81-1.4 mg/l when heated for the first time in new coffee percolators. The aluminium concentration of water heated in older percolators was 0.09-0.78 mg/l.

Aluminum↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Migration of styrene monomer from thermoset polyester cookware into foods during high temperature applications.

Migration of styrene from thermoset polyester cookware into foods has been studied during normal cooking applications and for the fatty food simulant olive oil under high temperature test conditions. The analysis of foods was by automated headspace gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in the selected ion mode. Cyclohexane was added to the slurried foods to improve headspace partition and deuterated-styrene was the internal standard. To achieve adequate sensitivity with olive oil, styrene was extracted and concentrated by a steam distillation method and then determined by GC/MS. Styrene in foods cooked in thermoset polyester articles was in the range < 5 to 5 micrograms/kg and 5 to 30 micrograms/kg where the polyester contained 9 and 380 mg/kg residual monomer respectively. Testing for 2 h at 175 degrees C into olive oil resulted in significantly higher migration of styrene than seen for other foods, although there was a marked decrease in migration on repeat-use. Testing of the complete articles as sealed systems filled with olive oil led to higher migration than testing by total immersion of plaques. Of the test methods used with olive oil, testing as filled articles with no lidding gave migration results closest to (but generally higher than) those seen for real foods.

Cooking and Eating Utensils↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Use of high temperature-resistant sorbents as simulants for testing.

The amended Council Directive 82/711/EEC will include the test conditions for plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with foodstuffs at high temperature. The most stringent test condition (excluding susceptor materials) will be heating of the material for 2 h at 175 degrees C in a conventional oven. For fatty foodstuffs, olive oil (simulant D), synthetic triglycerides or sunflower oil shall be used for the test. If these simulants are found inappropriate, other simulants and conditions of time and temperature may be used. In order to perform a correct evaluation of such materials one must distinguish between volatile and non-volatile migrants, between additives and decomposition products, and between overall and specific migration. No universally applicable simulant has been found yet which is able to provide all the data needed for evaluation. The advantages and limitations of a high temperature-resistant simulant will be described.

Cooking and Eating Utensils↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Combined compositional analysis and threshold of regulation as a possible control measure for microwave susceptors.

A testing scheme is described whereby the susceptor is heated in an enclosed system and potential volatile migrants detected by GC-FID or GC-MS. This compositional information is then combined with knowledge on the relationship between volatility and transfer to foods to predict migration levels. The scheme can be simplified to a threshold of regulation approach by addition of internal standards at suitable concentrations. This approach could be of value in screening new susceptor compositions for potential migrants, followed, as required, by more exhaustive testing using foods or food simulants. In support of this approach, 15 model substances with a boiling range of 77-440 degrees C were incorporated into susceptors via the vapour phase or by formulation into the adhesive. Migration to microwaved foods was measured to provide the required information on the approximate relationship between the boiling point of a potential migrant and its migration level. The impregnated susceptors were also used to measure migration of the model substances to the test simulants Tenax and a semi-solid simulant of olive oil and water absorbed on an inert support. Migration to both simulants was much higher than to foods, indicating that for volatiles analysis at least, both simulants are suitable for screening purposes and err on the side of safety.

Cooking and Eating Utensils↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Safety assessment of microwave susceptors and other high temperature packaging materials.

A number of packaging materials are being used not only to contain food during distribution but also to serve as the cooking container. The higher temperatures that these materials reach led the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to issue an intent to publish new regulations in 1989. The food and packaging industries responded by conducting extensive research and submitting the results to FDA. The methods used and results obtained are discussed. Most of the data were focused on microwave susceptors and the volatile compounds generated. One project showed that for a specific product, popcorn, there was no transfer into the food. Work is continuing to validate methods to test for non-volatile compounds. In addition to susceptors, various paper and plastic materials are used in dual ovenable (microwave and conventional ovens) applications. Most of the research on these materials has investigated the food contact temperatures on testing for migrants. An update on the current regulatory status of packaging materials intended for high temperature use in the US is discussed.

Consumer Product Safety↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Temperature measurement during microwave cooking.

Product development of microwavable foods originally suffered from a high degree of non-uniform heating which is generic in microwave heating. Typically, foods have suffered from either overheated edges or under heated centres. This was compounded by short reheat times which allowed little opportunity for temperature equilibration. A crucial step in overcoming this problem has been the understanding provided from time-temperature data. Conventional temperature measurements by thermocouple, etc. are inappropriate in microwave cooking due to the high electric fields which are present (ca 15 kV/m). The result is either very significant interference, or even failure of the sensor. Therefore, alternative methods were developed to meet the need, some of which are discussed in this paper. One such measurement system is the now commonplace fibre optic probe, originally from Luxtron. The discrete data provided from this system are compared with the surface imaging data delivered by thermal imaging. These techniques are discussed in the context of microwave packaging materials heated in situ in a microwave oven and the need for temperature data as a basis for establishing testing regimes.

Cooking and Eating Utensils↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Identification of potential migrants from samples of dual-ovenable plastics.

The analysis of samples of dual-ovenable cookware articles has identified chemicals with the potential to migrate into food. Samples were analysed by dynamic headspace analysis at 200 degrees C using a Tenax TA trap cooled in ice, and/or solvent extraction, followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Plastics analysed were crystalline poly(ethyleneterephthlalate) (cPET), thermoset polyester, poly(ethersulphone) and poly (4-methyl-pent-1-ene) (TPX). The greatest number and quantity of chemicals with the potential to migrate were found in thermoset polyester.

Chromatography, Gel↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Compositional analysis of samples of thermoset polyester and migration of ethylbenzene and styrene from thermoset polyester into pork during cooking.

The levels of ethylbenzene, styrene, benzene and benzaldehyde in samples of thermoset polyester were determined by dynamic headspace/gas chromatography. Styrene was present at levels from 50 to 1400 mg kg-1, ethylbenzene up to 25 mg kg-1 and benzaldehyde up to 180 mg kg-1. Benzene levels were usually less than 1 mg kg-1, but one article contained 19 mg kg-1. Levels of styrene dimers and trimers were estimated using size exclusion chromatography followed by gas chromatographic (GC) analysis and were present at approximately 100 mg kg-1 and 700 mg kg-1 respectively. The principal identified constituents of solvent extracts were stearic and palmitic acids, present at a combined level of nearly 1% by weight of the plastic. Styrene was shown to be produced by thermal depolymerization at temperatures of 175 degrees C and above. The migration of ethylbenzene and styrene into belly pork cooked in thermoset polyester dishes for 1.5 h at 175 degrees C was measured by Likens-Nickerson extraction of the cooked meat and GC/MS analysis of the extracts. Migration ranged from 6 to 2400 micrograms kg-1 for styrene and from < 6 to 34 micrograms kg-1 for ethylbenzene.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Preliminary assessment of potential health hazards associated with barium leached from glazed ceramicware.

Ceramic glazes contain several elements which have the potential to leach into food or beverages that are held or stored in ceramicware. Recently, barium salts have been investigated as one of the alternatives to lead in frit formulations for glazes. This preliminary evaluation addresses the potential health hazards associated with barium at levels that might leach from glazed ceramicware. A set of specialty ceramicware, consisting of five teacups and a pitcher, was examined for extractable barium. Exposure to barium that adults (18-44 years) might encounter using the vessels for coffee, tea, or orange juice was estimated. The exposure estimate was derived from values for intakes of the beverages and for the barium migration from glazed ceramicware test samples. An established reference dose (RfD) for barium exposure for the critical effect of hypertension was identified. The potential hazard associated with the leaching of barium from glazed ceramicware varied with the level of use. Consuming beverages in amounts up to the 95th percentile would not result in total barium intake in amounts that exceed the RfD; consuming large quantities (> 95th percentile) of beverages such as tea or coffee from glazed vessels might. This suggests that for a small portion of the population of users, intake of barium may be in quantities that warrant further consideration as a potential health hazard. Analyses of a broad sample of ceramicware and study of barium leaching behaviour under actual use conditions are needed to assess further the significance of these findings.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Investigations into the potential degradation of polycarbonate baby bottles during sterilization with consequent release of bisphenol A.

Twenty-four brands of plastic baby feeding bottles were purchased and all were found to be made of polycarbonate. Taking a batch of one representative sample, the polymer was tested for stability and possible release of bisphenol A following domestic practice of sterilization. Sterilization was by alkaline hypochlorite, steam, or washing in an automatic dishwasher at 65 degrees C with detergent. A total of 20 cycles of sterilization and subsequent food use were performed for each of the three procedures. Bisphenol A migration was in all cases not detectable in infant feed using a very sensitive method of liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection with a 0.03 mg/kg detection limit.

Benzhydryl Compounds↗

PubMed1998

Polystyrene cups and containers: styrene migration.

The level of styrene migration from polystyrene cups was monitored in different food systems including: water, milk (0.5, 1.55 and 3.6% fat), cold beverages (apple juice, orange juice, carbonated water, cola, beer and chocolate drink), hot beverages (tea, coffee, chocolate and soup (0.0, 0.5, 1, 2, and 3.6% fat), take away foods (yogurt, jelly, pudding and ice-cream), as well as aqueous food simulants (3% acetic acid, 15, 50, and 100% ethanol) and olive oil. Styrene migration was found to be strongly dependent upon the fat content and storage temperature. Drinking water gave migration values considerably lower than all of the fatty foods. Ethanol at 15% showed a migration level equivalent to milk or soup containing 3.6% fat. Maximum observed migration for cold or hot beverages and take-away foods was 0.025% of the total styrene in the cup. Food simulants were responsible for higher migration (0.37% in 100% ethanol). A total of 60 food samples (yogurt, rice with milk, fromage, biogardes, and cheese) packed in polystyrene containers were collected from retail markets in Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands. The level of styrene detected in the foods was always fat dependent.

Beverages↗