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Results for “Developmental stage”

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PubMed1998

The formalin test: a dose-response analysis at three developmental stages.

We investigated the behavioral response of rat pups to intraplantar injection of varying formalin concentrations using a time-sampling method. At 3 days of age, the response was monophasic and persisted for the whole hour, even at low formalin concentrations. Flexion, shaking and licking the injected limb and hind-limb kicking correlated strongly with log formalin concentration (r = 0.82); behavioral state was altered only at the highest concentration. The response on day 15 was also monophasic, but it waned in 30 min, even at the highest formalin concentration tested. Flexion, shaking and licking of the injected limb were strong pain measures (r = 0.83). The response at 25 days was biphasic, and the adult measures, paw lifting and licking, produced a good formalin concentration-effect relationship (r = 0.80). The log concentration-effect relationships for formalin at the three developmental stages and for adult rats were parallel, but between 3 days and 15 days of age, the relationship shifted to the right by 2.5-fold, and by a further 4-fold between 15 and 25 days, when the sensitivity to formalin-induced pain was similar to that in adults. The data describe efficient, quantitative measures of formalin-induced pain for developing rats, show that the pain response is log-linearly related to formalin concentration throughout development, and demonstrate that the sensitivity to formalin-induced pain is about 10-fold higher in neonatal rats than in weanlings. the data imply that there are major qualitative changes in pain processing as the nervous system develops.

Aging↗

PubMed2001

Detection of differentially expressed genes in the early developmental stage of the mouse mandible.

We previously examined the development of the mouse mandible, and demonstrated that odontogenesis occurs between embryonic day 10.5 (E10.5) and E12. Based on the histological findings, we performed cDNA subtraction between the E10.5 and E12 mandibles to detect any differentially expressed genes which might be involved in the initiation of odontogenesis. By sequencing, homology search and semi-quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we thus found Pgk-1, Ccte, Hsp86, Nucleolin, Hsc73, Frg1, N-ras, Set alpha and Hsj2 from the E10.5 mandible, and E25, ATPase6, Mum2, Thymosin beta4 and L21 from the E12 mandible to be differentially expressed genes. These genes are functionally related to protein transport, signal transduction, transcription, translation and molecular chaperon activity. In situ hybridization analyses of Set alpha and E25 showed that Set alpha was detected in the tooth germ at E12 and E14.5, thus indicating a close relationship of this gene to odontogenesis. Meanwhile, the in situ signal of E25 was found in the muscular layer of the tongue, thus suggesting E25 to be related to the differentiation of muscular tissue. In conclusion, we found 15 differentially expressed genes in the course of the early developmental stage of the mouse mandible using a combination of the cDNA subtraction and semi-quantitative RT-PCR methods, while in addition, two genes were demonstrated to be related to the initiation and the development of both tooth germ and the tongue according to the in situ hybridization technique.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Clustering of Schistosoma mansoni mRNA sequences and analysis of the most transcribed genes: implications in metabolism and biology of different developmental stages.

The study of the Schistosoma mansoni genome, one of the etiologic agents of human schistosomiasis, is essential for a better understanding of the biology and development of this parasite. In order to get an overview of all S. mansoni catalogued gene sequences, we performed a clustering analysis of the parasite mRNA sequences available in public databases. This was made using softwares PHRAP and CAP3. The consensus sequences, generated after the alignment of cluster constituent sequences, allowed the identification by database homology searches of the most expressed genes in the worm. We analyzed these genes and looked for a correlation between their high expression and parasite metabolism and biology. We observed that the majority of these genes is related to the maintenance of basic cell functions, encoding genes whose products are related to the cytoskeleton, intracellular transport and energy metabolism. Evidences are presented here that genes for aerobic energy metabolism are expressed in all the developmental stages analyzed. Some of the most expressed genes could not be identified by homology searches and may have some specific functions in the parasite.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1997

Induction of glutamine synthetase by L-alpha-aminoadipate in developmental stages of cultured astrocytes.

Effect of L-alpha-aminoadipate (L alpha AA), a gliotoxic L-glutamate analogue, on glutamine synthetase (GS) activity of rat cultured astrocytes was examined, L alpha AA at sub-toxic concentrations (less than 0.5 mM, for 48 h) increased GS activity of cultured astrocytes. This increase was prevented by 10 microM cycloheximide, an inhibitor of protein synthesis. L alpha AA increased GS activities of astrocytes cultured in three different conditions, i.e. 12-day-old, 5-233k-old and dibutyryl cAMP(DBcAMP)-induced differentiated cultures. Insulin (10 micrograms/ml) and hydrocortisone (10 microM) increased GS activity of 12-day-old cultured cells, but not that of 5-weeks-old and DBcAMP-treated cells. The increase in GS activity was observed after a transient treatment with L alpha AA for 4 h. These results show that the induction of GS by L alpha AA is not related to developmental stages of astrocytes in culture.

2-Aminoadipic Acid↗

PubMed2025

Comparative and systems analyses of Leishmania spp. non-coding RNAs through developmental stages.

Leishmania spp. is the etiological agent of leishmaniases, neglected diseases that seek to be eradicated in the coming years. The life cycle of these parasites involves different host and stress environments. In recent years, many studies have shown that several protein-coding genes are directly involved with the development and host interactions. However, little is still known about the role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in life cycle progression. In this study, we aimed to identify the genomic structure and function of ncRNAs from Leishmania spp. and to get insights into the repertoire of ncRNAs (RNAome) of this protozoan genus. We studied 26 strains corresponding to 16 different species of Leishmania. Our RNAome analysis revealed the presence of several ncRNAs that are shared among different species, allowing us to differentiate between subgenera as well as between species that are canonically related to visceral leishmaniasis. We also studied co-expression relationships between coding genes and ncRNAs which in the amastigote developmental stage for Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania donovani revealed the presence of miRNA-like transcripts co-expressed with several coding genes involved in starvation, survival and histone modification. This work represents the first effort to characterize the Leishmania ssp. RNAome, supporting further approaches to better understand the role of ncRNAs in gene regulation, infective process, and host-parasite interaction.

RNA, Untranslated↗

PubMed2001

Cytokinin activities in cells of wheat inflorescence in depependence of its developmental stage.

We demonstrate that differences in the endogenous biologically active levels and patterns of cytokinins depend on the organ differentiation, i. e. immature inflorescence before meiosis and immature embryo 14 days after anthesis, respectively, in winter wheat of two genotypes: Grana and Almari. Two cell lines were subjected to analysis of cytokinin contents. Higher levels of endogenous cytokinin were found in cells derived from immature embryo (E) in comparison to cells obtained from immature inflorescence (I). The levels of zeatin ryboside ([9R]Z) and benzyladenosine ([9R]BAP) were predominant and isopentenyladenine (iP) was very low for the cells E of both genotypes. The cytokinin amounts in cells E and I of the zeatin group were smaller than those of other groups. We suggest that the concentration of cytokinins in tissue capable of generative development in winter wheat should be on a level that occurred in inflorescence cell lines, in comparison to immature embryo cell lines. These results indicate that the effect of the developmental stage of ears of wheat on the capability to flower in winter wheat plants regenerated in in vitro culture may be induced by the hormone level.

Cytokinins↗

PubMed1990

Further developmental stages of the interest in money.

Ferenczi, in his psychoanalytic classic on the ontogenesis (development in the individual) of the interest in money, without designating it as such, traced a phylogenetic or evolutionary sequence that took us by a series of transformations from the anal-cloacal erotism of valuation of a fecal body product (the infant's love of feces) to deodorized (like mud), dehydrated (like sand), decolorized, hardened, smooth (like stones and buttons) fecal substitutes that finally as coins are made to shine. This is to consider money as shiny possessable objects that would be of equal interest to simian species. Surely money can be analogized to other body products; and I have previously suggested (1969) that words also are a treasury of wealth that are valued as body products and also archaically associated with feces. But the youngest of the 18 suburban children in this pilot study seemed already to have related money to the love of their parents and grandparents. Further developmental stages of the human interest in money, here only suggested, appear to proceed as follows: curiosity about money as a belonging of the parents in oedipal-stage grasp of family politics (which may persist if childhood selfishness remains unleavened); money as a reward and exchange in latency trading (whether by boys and girls or grown-up "traders" in the financial "game"); money as a measure of status and class and as an indication of group identity in adolescence (which may persist in senses of group entitlement); and various levels of mature appreciation of money as a system of universal agreement, as a translatable, fungible form of information to register relative value, and as capital, an ingredient of productivity. Further study of the mental stages of the appreciation of money is warranted, but the social context appears unavoidably central. Ultimately money may be purely a mean that finally (harking back to its symbolic body origin) will be fully separated from the self in acts of riddance and gifting that vary from exercising power to loving bestowal (Kolb), and from jealous greed to generosity. Piagetian cognitive stages are exemplified by the children's approach to money at different ages; for example, even in this limited sample there is indication of a principle of conservation of value (here proposed) that appears in latency as an equivalent of the principle of conservation of volume. Neuropsychiatric impairment may lead to increasing concreteness in the representation of money as feces (which I have termed "the return of Ferenczi").(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Distinct effects of protein kinase C on the barrier function at different developmental stages.

We show here, that activation of protein kinase C by the phorbol ester PMA improves barrier function in colon carcinoma (HT 29) cells. By contrast, in canine kidney (MDCK I) cells it caused increased permeability and opening of tight junctions; the latter has also been noticed in other studies. Thus, with PMA confluent HT 29 cells responded with a reduced passage of 330 kDa sodium fluorescein, increased transepithelial electrical resistance, and a change in the cell shape of the HT 29 cells from an irregular to a regular, hexagonal form. Confocal imaging revealed parallel distinct changes in the staining of occludin and caludin-1, viz. a translocation from cytoplasmic clusters to apical cell-cell contacts. Interestingly, in both cell lines protein kinase A activation caused a decreased in the threonine phosphorylation of occludin that correlated with tight junction assembly in HT 29 cells and tight junction disassembly in MDCK I cells. We conclude that protein kinase C regulation of the epithelial barrier involves specific molecular mechanisms and achieves distinct effects at different developmental stages.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Mosaicism for Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A: onset in childhood suggests somatic reversion in early developmental stages.

A 1.5 Mb duplication on chromosome 17p11.2 is typical for the great majority of patients suffering from Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 1A (CMT1A) disease. A female child of 4 years with clinical signs and symptoms of a demyelinating neuropathy was examined for the presence of this duplication. Analysis of MspI polymorphisms in DNA extracted from peripheral blood failed due to homozygosity for probes pVAW409R3a and pEW401HE. Also, no EcoRI/SacI 3.2 kb junction fragment or dosage difference with probe pLR7.8, characteristic of the CMT1A duplication, was found. However, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis with the PMP22 specific probe c132G8 revealed in peripheral blood lymphocytes 60% of interphase nuclei with CMT1A duplication indicating the probability of mosaicism. In interphase nuclei extracted from nerve tissue the duplication was detectable in 88%, in muscle tissue in 72% of the analyzed nuclei. This suggests the presence of a somatic CMT1A duplication mosaicism that can only be reliably detected by FISH. The early onset and severity of the phenotype indicates that the hypothesized somatic reversion is probably fixed to early developmental stages.

Age of Onset↗

PubMed2001

Lack of the Polycomb-group gene rae28 causes maturation arrest at the early B-cell developmental stage.

The rae28 gene (rae28) is a murine homologue of the Drosophila polyhomeotic gene, which is a member of the Polycomb-group genes. In this study, we examined the role of rae28 in lymphocyte development. Because homozygous rae28-deficient (rae28-/-) mice died in the perinatal period, we examined lymphocyte development by generating chimeric mice reconstituted with green fluorescence protein-labeled mutant fetal liver cells as well as in in vitro culture systems. We further examined RAE28 expression by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction assay in human leukemic cells with B-lineage acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Severe B-cell maturation arrest was observed in rae28-/- between pro- and pre-B lymphocyte stages. B-cell development was also delayed in heterozygous neonates. Furthermore, interleukin-7-dependent colony-forming ability was impaired not only in homozygous lymphocytes but also in heterozygotes. Its human homologue, RAE28, is located on chromosome 12p13, which frequently is associated with chromosomal abnormalities and loss of heterozygosity in patients with hematologic malignancies. To determine whether a link exists between RAE28 and leukemia, we examined RAE28 expression in leukemic cells from pediatric patients with B-lineage ALL. RAE28 expression was not detected in four B-cell precursor ALL cases of a total of 43 examined, although RAE28 is normally expressed constitutively during the process of B-cell maturation as assessed in isolated cell populations. rae28 plays an important role in the early B-cell developmental stage in a gene dosage-dependent manner. Furthermore, the human RAE28 locus may provide a candidate gene causing the molecular pathogenesis of childhood B-cell precursor ALL.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Effects of diisopropylfluorophosphate on brain cholinergic systems of rats at early developmental stages.

The effects of subchronic intoxication by diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) during pregnancy on development of brain cholinesterases (ChE) and [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate (QNB) binding to muscarinic receptors were studied at the end of gestation and in offspring at 1, 5, 10, and 20 days after birth. Pregnant rats received on alternate days sc injections of DFP (first dose 1.1 mg/kg, subsequent doses 0.7 mg/kg) from Day 6 through Day 20. In spite of the considerable maternal toxicity of DFP, the level of brain ChE at birth and subsequent increases of enzymatic activity did not differ from those of controls. By contrast, significantly lower levels of QNB binding sites at birth were followed by a delay in development up to about 2 weeks. In the experiments using animals sacrificed on Days 20 and 21 of gestation, maternal brain ChE were consistently depressed, while in fetal brain an almost complete recovery occurred within 48 hr from the last DFP injection. Maximal number of QNB binding sites (Bmax) was decreased significantly both in maternal and fetal brain. These data indicate that tolerance mediated by receptor changes can be produced at early developmental stages, in spite of the accelerated recovery of brain ChE after treatment. In another experiment 7- to 27-day pups were treated on alternate days with sc doses of DFP (0.45 mg/kg from Day 7 to Day 19 and 0.70 mg/kg up to Day 27) and sacrificed on Day 7, 14, 20, 28, or 40. Brain ChE was reduced by 45-70%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1995

The maternal leucocyte response to the endometrial cups in horses is correlated with the developmental stages of the invasive trophoblast cells.

Invading trophoblasts form endometrial cups in the endometrium of the pregnant mare. In the present study we characterized the maternal leucocyte response to endometrial cups from their formation to their regression. The maternal leucocyte response was correlated with the stages of trophoblast development. (1) Aggregates of CD4+ and CD8+ cells were present between the migrating and differentiating endometrial cup trophoblasts and surrounding the forming endometrial cups. (2) Numbers of CD4+ cells within the mature endometrial cups were much reduced. At the periphery of the endometrial cups CD4+ and CD8+ cells were found in patchy accumulations around endometrial glands; small clusters of CD79+ B lymphocytes were present as well. (3) Scattered CD4+ and CD8+ cells were found within dying endometrial cups; areas of cell death were infiltrated with neutrophils. Large aggregates of CD4+ cells and CD8+ cells, and small but numerous clusters of CD79+ cells and eosinophils, were found outside of the dying endometrial cups. The CD4+ or CD8+ cells were mostly CD3+ T cells; some were probably macrophages which can express both of these markers in horses. The correlation between the developmental stages of the endometrial cup trophoblast and the maternal leucocyte response suggests a complicated cytokine-mediated regulatory network.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Proto-oncogene c-myc is expressed in cerebellar neurons at different developmental stages.

During post-natal cerebellar development the steady-state levels of c-myc transcripts exhibit characteristic changes. As determined by the S1 nuclease protection assay the level of c-myc transcript, which is very high in the late embryonic cerebellum, decreased to low levels shortly after birth. One week later there is a second period of c-myc mRNA accumulation followed by a marked decline to finally reach the low adult value. The second peak of high c-myc mRNA level correlates well with the proliferation of granule cell precursors, and it is characterized by a marked change in the ratio of the two types of transcripts started at the known c-myc promoters 1 and 2. This indicates a change in the cell population involved in the transcription of the c-myc gene. In situ hybridization shows transiently elevated c-myc mRNA levels in neurons of the cerebellar cortex. At post-natal days 3 and 10 (P3 and P10) c-myc transcripts are detectable in the superficial external granular layer composed primarily of mitotically active (neural precursor) cells. Purkinje cell somata show cytoplasmic label at P10. These large postmitotic neurons undergo rapid differentiation at this developmental stage. In the adult cerebellum the low c-myc mRNA level is apparently due to Purkinje cells with barely detectable amounts of c-myc transcripts. The vast majority of mature cerebellar neurons, the internal granule cells, have no specific hybridization signal for c-myc. We conclude that neurons in vivo can accumulate c-myc messenger during proliferation and/or differentiation, perhaps as a cellular response to an external signal.

Aging↗

PubMed1997

Identification of procaryotic developmental stages by statistical analyses of two-dimensional gel patterns.

Multivariate statistical comparisons of two-dimensional protein (2-D) gel patterns were used for the first time to define stages of a biological developmental system. The differentiating procaryote, Streptomyces coelicolor, was radiolabeled in liquid cultures at 16 intervals during development, and radioactive proteins were separated and quantified on 2-D gels. Cluster, principal component, and correlation analyses classified these gel patterns into four distinct groups, each reflecting a pattern of gene expression specific for a stage of development. These studies focused our attention on a phase of arrested growth as a key regulatory transition leading to secondary metabolism and a phase of renewed growth. Proteins whose synthesis was switched on or off during the "transitional" phase (some 21 and 18, respectively) were identified and will be the focus of future studies designed to identify their physiological or regulatory function.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1999

The relationship between the effects of UV light and thermal shock on gametes and the viability of early developmental stages in a marine teleost fish, the sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.).

To improve the efficiency of gynogenetic induction, the effects of UV light and thermal shock on gametes were investigated in the sea bass. Exposure of sperm to UV light (>/=15 000 erg mm-2) reduced the amount of motile spermatozoa, without affecting the duration of motility in the spermatozoa that remained motile. The Hertwig effect was elicited in eggs fertilized with sperm exposed to >/=35 000 erg mm-2 of UV light, indicating the inactivation of the DNA of the spermatozoa while retaining their ability to trigger development. Resulting embryos (24 chromosomes; one NOR) exhibited the haploid syndrome and died at hatch. Diploidy was restored in eggs fertilized with irradiated sperm by blocking meiosis II with a thermal shock (0 +/- 0.5 degrees C for 10 min, starting 5 min after fertilization). Resulting larvae ( approximately 35% survival at hatching) had 48 chromosomes, one or two NOR and no paternal chromosome fragments (gynogenetic diploids). In eggs fertilized with sperm not exposed to UV light, the same thermal shock induced 100% triploidy (72 chromosomes; one, two or three NOR), with 70% survival at hatching. Multifactorial ANOVA showed that, compared to external factors (sperm diluent, UV light and thermal shock), the contribution of broodstock to the viability of the early developmental stages was not significant (P > 0.05). Effects of the thermal shock were most evident after fertilization (30.7%) but disappeared (0%) at hatching, suggesting that the lower survival of triploids is a consequence of handling, not of the triploid condition per se. However, effects of UV light increased through development (42.5-69.7%), probably reflecting cumulative deficits in protein synthesis.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Antigenic profile of Ixodes ricinus: effect of developmental stage, feeding time and the response of different host species.

Antigens recognized by host species in response to ectoparasite infestation have been widely reported. Although differences in the immune responses of different host species have been described, only a very few of these studies compare the range of antigens recognized by different host species in response to infestation. We used Western blot analysis to investigate antigenic responses of different host species that were repeatedly infested with Ixodes ricinus ticks. Antigenic profiles of larval and nymphal whole tick homogenates were compared with the respective salivary gland extract (SGE) samples using sera from rabbits repeatedly infested with either adults, nymphs or larvae. SGE samples were also analysed using sera from hamsters infested with adults, nymphs or larvae. Sera from BALB/C mice, Apodemus flavicollis (yellow-necked mouse) or Clethrionomys glareolus (bank vole) repeatedly infested with larvae were used to compare the antigenic profiles of SGE and larval homogenate samples. We also investigated different sources of tick antigens, using rabbit sera, by comparing midgut extracts from female adult ticks and SGE from unfed ticks and from ticks throughout the 6-day feeding period with whole tick homogenates of female and male adults, nymphs and larvae. The pattern of antigenic tick-molecules recognized by infested host species varies with the period of feeding, developmental stage and the particular host species parasitized.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Cryptosporidium parvum at different developmental stages modulates host cell apoptosis in vitro.

We studied apoptosis in a human ileocecal adenocarcinoma tumor cell line (HCT-8) infected with Cryptosporidium parvum, from 2 to 72 h postinfection (h.p.i.). At 2 h.p.i., the percentage of annexin V-positive cells in the cell culture had increased to 10% compared to 2.5% in noninfected control culture; sorted infected cells expressed mRNA of FasL, the active form of caspase 3, and high caspase 3 activity, whereas the noninfected neighboring cells sorted from the same culture showed no signs of apoptosis. At 24 h.p.i., the percentages of early (annexin V positive) and late (DNA fragment) apoptotic cells were 13 and 2%, respectively, in the entire cell culture, and these percentages were not statistically significant in comparison with those from noninfected control cultures. At this time, sorted infected cells expressed the inactive form of caspase 3, a low caspase 3 activity, and the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2. Noninfected cells sorted from the same culture showed expression of the active form of caspase 3, a moderate caspase 3 activity, and no Bcl-2 expression. At 48 h.p.i., the percentages of early and late apoptotic cells and caspase 3 activity had increased in the total cell culture, and both sorted infected and noninfected cells showed the active form of caspase 3. These results show that C. parvum, depending on its developmental stage, can inhibit (at the trophozoite stage) or promote (at the sporozoite and merozoite stages) host cell apoptosis, suggesting that it is able to interact with and regulate the host-cell gene expression.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Osmometric behavior, hydraulic conductivity, and incidence of intracellular ice formation in bovine oocytes at different developmental stages.

Bovine oocytes that were immature (IMM), matured in vitro (IVM) or in vivo (MAT), or matured and fertilized in vitro (IVF) were studied using a microscope diffusion chamber to estimate osmotic parameters and a cryomicroscope to characterize intracellular ice formation (IIF). Linear Boyle van't Hoff relationships were observed with all four types of oocytes between 0.265 and 0.799 osm NaCl. At 20 degrees C, estimates of hydraulic conductivity (Lp) were significantly higher for IVM oocytes than IMM and MAT oocytes (0.84 micron/(min.atm) vs 0.45 and 0.47, respectively). IVM oocytes also tended to have higher Lp values than IVF oocytes (0.55 micron/(min.atm)). At 5 degrees C, the Lp of IVM oocytes decreased to 0.36 micron/min.atm) corresponding to an Arrhenius activation energy of 7.84 kcal/mol. The incidence of IIF in MAT oocytes suspended in salt solution and subjected to linear cooling to -60 degrees C was 45% at 4 degrees C/min, 75% at 8 degrees C/min, and 93% at 16 degrees C/min; with IVF oocytes, the incidence of IIF was 40% at 4 degrees C/min, 92% at 8 degrees C/min, and 100% at 16 degrees C/min. Comparisons involving median IIF temperatures (TIIF50s) and the distributions of the observed IIF temperatures for IMM (Myers et al., Cryo-Lett. 8, 260), IVM (Chandrasekaran et al., Cryobiology 27, 676), MAT and IVF oocytes indicated that the IIF incidence in IMM oocytes cooled at 4 degrees C/min was greater than that of oocytes at the other developmental stages cooled at the same rate. The TIIF50s of IVM and IVF oocytes were lowered by equilibration in 1.5 M ethylene glycol (EG), glycerol, or propylene glycol (PG) prior to cooling, with EG tending to lower the TIIF50s more than glycerol or PG. For all three cryoprotectants, the TIIF50s and IFF temperature distributions were cooling-rate dependent. The Weibull probability distribution was fitted to the distributions of the IIF temperatures of oocytes suspended in salt solutions with and without cryoprotectants yielding R2 values ranging from 0.70 to 0.98.

Animals↗