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PubMed1987

Effects of energy intake on energetic efficiency and body composition of beef steers differing in size at maturity.

Hereford and Charolais steers were fed at three levels of feed intake (low, medium or ad libitum) to similar weights within breed groups to evaluate effects of energy intake on energetic efficiency and body composition. Two methods were employed to partition metabolizable energy intake into use for maintenance and gain. Method one used an assumed daily fasting heat production of 77 kcal/weight (W).75; method two estimated fasting heat production from the regression of log daily heat production against metabolizable energy intake (kcal/W.75). Net energy for gain (NEg) was determined in method one by regressing retained energy (kcal/W.75) against feed intake (g/W.75). For method two, the estimated maintenance requirement of feed was subtracted from total feed intake and retained energy was regressed against feed intake above maintenance to estimate NEg. Conclusions regarding feed energy utilization for maintenance and gain were the same by either method of energy partitioning. Charolais steers used feed energy less efficiently for gain than Hereford steers, and ad libitum steers used feed energy less efficiently for gain than steers at lower intakes (P less than .05). Charolais steers made leaner (P less than .05) gains than Hereford steers. Although steers consuming the lowest level of feed made gains containing a lower percentage of fat and a higher percentage of protein (P less than .05) than steers at higher intakes, body composition within a breed was not altered by level of energy intake when animals, within breeds, were slaughtered at similar end weights.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

The effect of increasing the relative cost of palatable food with respect to ordinary food on total-energy intake of eight obese inpatients.

1. It has been suggested that obese subjects have a greater relative preference for palatable foods than lean subjects. 2. The food intake of eight obese subjects was measured using an automated food dispensing machine. 3. Subjects ate ad libitum for the first three days from a range of acceptable foods predetermined by questionnaire. 4. On the next three days the food which subjects chose most frequently ('palatable' food) was priced at a level such that if the subjects maintained their intake of that food they were forced to reduce their total energy intake by 50 per cent, but the subjects were able to obtain food sufficient to maintain their energy intake only if they ate exclusively food rated as 'ordinary'. 5. On this differential fixed price schedule the obese subjects reduced total energy intake to a small extent (20 per cent) whereas their intake of palatable food was reduced to a larger extent (65 per cent). Thus obese subjects relatively defended energy intake at the expense of palatability. Hunger and appetite ratings did not differ from each other throughout the study.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Dietary energy intake at the age of 4 months predicts postnatal weight gain and childhood body mass index.

OBJECTIVE: Rapid infant weight gain has been shown to predict later obesity risk; however, it is unclear which factors influence infant diet and weight gain. The objective of this study was to determine whether different feeding patterns and energy intakes that are provided to infants affect body weight and BMI later in childhood. METHODS: This representative birth cohort study was conducted in the United Kingdom. Energy intake at age 4 months was estimated from 1-day unweighed dietary records in 881 infants and related to their childhood weight gain and BMI. RESULTS: Among formula- or mixed-fed infants (N = 582), energy intake was higher in first-born infants (mean +/- SE: 2730 +/- 29.4 kJ/day; n = 263) than in subsequent-born infants (2620.8 +/- 25.2 kJ/day; n = 296). Energy intake at 4 months was also higher in infants who were given solid foods earlier (1-2 months: 2805.6 +/- 50.4 kJ/day, n = 89; 2-3 months: 2658.6 +/- 25.2 kJ/day, n = 339; 4+ months: 2587.2 +/- 46.2 kJ/day, n = 111). Higher energy intake at 4 months predicted greater weight gain between birth to age 1, 2, or 3 years and larger body weight and BMI at ages 1 to 5 years. No significant associations were seen in breastfed infants (N = 299). CONCLUSIONS: Among formula- or mixed-fed infants, dietary energy intake at age 4 months predicted postnatal weight gain and childhood obesity risk. Both prenatal and postnatal factors may influence infant energy intake and postnatal weight gain.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed1993

Level of preadipocyte growth factor in rat adipose tissue which specifically permits the proliferation of preadipocytes is affected by restricted energy intake.

We previously reported the presence of a protein growth factor in rat adipose tissue which specifically permits the proliferation of 3T3-L1 and Ob1771 preadipocytes [Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1990;171:905-912, ref. 1] and which is hereinafter referred to as PAGF (preadipocyte growth factor). In this study, the effects of long-term restricted energy intake on the PAGF activity in rat epididymal and perirenal adipose tissue toward 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were investigated. When rats were subjected to restricted energy intake for three weeks, PAGF activity increased with energy intake. The body weight, epididymal and perirenal fat depot weights and glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity also increased with the energy intake, whereas the lactate dehydrogenase activity remained almost constant in all energy intake groups. These results suggest that the PAGF in fat depots functions in response to energy intake and contributes to the de novo formation of adipocytes and the growth of adipose tissue. This factor may provide a useful tool for further elucidation of the relationship between energy storage in adipose tissue and adipose tissue development.

3T3-L1 Cells↗

PubMed2001

Limits to sustained energy intake. I. Lactation in the laboratory mouse Mus musculus.

Laboratory mice (strain MF1) were used to determine whether sustainable rates of energy intake are limited during lactation. Mice raising natural-sized litters (N=71) reached an asymptote in their daily food intake between days 13 and 16 of lactation at 23.1 g x day(-1) and also between litter sizes of 9 and 15 pups (22.8 g x day(-1)). A second group of 37 females had their litter sizes manipulated at birth to raise more or fewer offspring than they gave birth to. When the litter size was increased, females did not increase their food intake to match their new litter size. However, when litter size was decreased, females decreased their asymptotic daily food intake during late lactation in relation to the extent of reduction in litter size. Therefore, it appeared that females were limited during late lactation and with large litter sizes. The milk energy exported amounted to 44% of the gross energy intake, and the estimated daily energy expenditure was therefore considerably lower than the sustained energy intake [8.0xRMR(gross), 6.6xRMR(assimilated)], and averaged 3.1xRMR, where RMR is resting metabolic rate. It was not possible to determine whether the apparent limit on sustained energy intake was acting centrally or peripherally because of the asymptotes in both food intake and milk energy output with increasing litter size.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Adequacy of energy intake among breast-fed infants in the DARLING study: relationships to growth velocity, morbidity, and activity levels. Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition and Growth.

Breast-fed infants grow less rapidly after the first 2 to 3 months of age than current standards. The DARLING study (Davis Area Research on Lactation, Infant Nutrition and Growth) was designed to evaluate whether this pattern should be considered "faltering" or is a normal outcome even under optimal conditions. Data on intake, growth, morbidity, activity, and motor development were collected longitudinally from infants who were breast fed for at least 12 months. Gross energy intake, calculated from 4-day records of milk and food intake at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months, averaged 91.4, 84.1, 86.7, and 91.8 kcal/kg per day, respectively, well below recommended amounts of metabolizable energy. Nevertheless, infants usually left some food unconsumed. Growth velocity was also below current reference data and was weakly correlated with energy intake. There were no significant negative associations between energy intake at any time and incidence, prevalence, or duration of any category of morbidity during the subsequent 3 months. There were no consistent associations between energy intake and activity level, time spent sleeping, or achievement of key developmental milestones. Similarly, infants with slower growth velocity were just as active and were ill no more often in subsequent months than infants who were growing more rapidly. Thus the deviation from current recommendations for energy intake and growth can be considered a normal pattern with no apparent deleterious consequences in our population of breast-fed infants.

Body Weight↗

PubMed1989

Interrelationships between water, food and digestible energy intake in desert and temperate goats.

Intra- and interspecific relationships between energy intake and digestible energy intake (DEI) and water turnover (WTO) in Black Bedouin and temperate (Swiss Saanen) goats were analyzed. Available data from other species of mammals were also evaluated. A highly significant linear relationship between WTO and DEI holds within breeds of goats under different levels of DEI and between breeds which vary considerably in their body weight and metabolic expenditure (WTO ml/kg per day = -5.4 + 0.911 DEI kcal/kg per day, n = 34, r2 = 0.99, Sb = 0.057). In lactating goats the relation between WTO rate (minus water secreted in milk) and DEI is the same as that measured in non-lactating ones. Mammals with quite a different body weight have the same WTO per unit of metabolism--about 1 mol of water per 5 mol of oxygen--although their absolute turnover is very different. Furthermore, the above relationship is similar to the relationship between WTO:DEI found in goats here. (WTO ml/kg per day = 5.8 + 0.849 x kcal/kg per day, n = 8, r2 = 0.99, Sb = 0.030, where x is the caloric equivalent of oxygen consumption.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Breast-feeding through the first year predicts maternal control in feeding and subsequent toddler energy intakes.

OBJECTIVE: Current recommendations for infant feeding encourage breast-feeding through the first year. This research was conducted to evaluate associations among breast-feeding, maternal control of child feeding, and the dietary intake of toddlers during the second year of life. In particular, we sought to determine whether breast-feeding through the first year and subsequent toddler intake was mediated via maternal control of child feeding. DESIGN/SUBJECTS: Fifty-five white infants and their mothers were monitored longitudinally from age 12 or 13 months to age 18 months. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Breast-feeding through the first year and maternal control in infant feeding were evaluated as predictors of energy intake at age 18 months. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Regression analysis was used to evaluate predictors of toddler energy intake at age 18 months. A mediation model tested if the relationship between breast-feeding and infant intake was mediated by maternal control in feeding. RESULTS: Breast-feeding through the first year was associated with higher toddler energy intakes at age 18 months through its influence on maternal control in feeding. Mothers who breast-fed their infants for at least 12 months used lower levels of control in feeding. Lower levels of maternal control in feeding were associated with higher toddler energy intakes. The highest energy intakes among children aged 18 months were observed among taller and leaner toddlers. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that breast-feeding through the first year may have an effect on children's energy intake by shaping mothers' child-feeding practices. These findings may be used by clinicians to assist parents in making informed decisions about choice of infant-feeding method and to provide anticipatory guidance regarding infant-feeding style when initiating dietary diversity.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Limits to sustained energy intake IX: a review of hypotheses.

Several lines of evidence indicate that animals in the wild may be limited in their maximal rates of energy intake by their intrinsic physiology rather than food availability. Understanding the limits to sustained energy intake is important because this defines an envelope within which animals must trade-off competing activities. In the first part of this review, we consider the initial ideas that propelled this area and experimental evidence connected with them. An early conceptual advance in this field was the idea that energy intake could be centrally limited by aspects of the digestive process, or peripherally limited at the sites of energy utilisation. A model system that has been widely employed to explore these ideas is lactation in small rodents. Initial studies in the late 1980s indicated that energy intake might be centrally limited, but work by Hammond and colleagues in the 1990s suggested that it was more likely that the limits were imposed by capacity of the mammary glands, and other works tended to support this view. This consensus, however, was undermined by studies that showed milk production was higher in mice at low temperatures, suggesting that the capacity of the mammary gland is not a limiting factor. In the second part of the review we consider some additional hypotheses that might explain these conflicting data. These include the heat dissipation limits hypothesis, the seasonal investment hypothesis and the saturated neural control hypothesis. Current evidence with respect to these hypotheses is also reviewed. The limited evidence presently available does not unambiguously support any one of them.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Underreporting of energy intake in repeated 24-hour recalls related to gender, age, weight status, day of interview, educational level, reported food intake, smoking habits and area of living.

OBJECTIVE: The aims of the present study were (1) to evaluate the degree to which underreporting of energy intake by repeated 24-hour recalls was related to gender, age, weight status, day of interview, educational level, smoking habits and area of living, and (2) to compare the dietary characteristics of underreporters with those of others. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. Ten 24-hour recalls were performed during a one-year period. SETTING: The Västerbotten intervention programme of cardiovascular disease and diabetes in Northern Sweden. SUBJECTS: Ninety-four men and 99 women in four age groups: 30, 40, 50 and 60 years. RESULTS: The prevalence of men and women with a food intake level (FIL; reported energy intake divided by estimated basal metabolic rate) below 1.2 was 44% and 47%, respectively. The youngest age group had higher FIL values than the oldest age group for both men (1.5 versus 1.1) and women (1.4 versus 1.1). The prevalence and magnitude of underreporting were directly related to body mass index (BMI; correlation coefficient: -0.47 (men) and -0.55 (women)). Smokers had a lower FIL value (1.1) than non-smokers (1.3). The nutrient density was lower for the group with high FIL values for protein and calcium and higher for fat and sucrose. The upper FIL group often had higher intake frequencies and larger portion sizes than the lower FIL group. CONCLUSIONS: Underreporting of energy intake is prevalent when 24-hour recalls are used, but the prevalence differs between sub-groups in the population. BMI was the main predictor of underreporting but also old age and smoking seem to contribute in this aspect. Socially desirable food items were not underreported to the same extent as socially undesirable food items. The intake frequencies and portion sizes partly explained the differences in FIL.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Energy intake during economic crisis depends on initial wealth and access to rice fields: the case of pregnant Indonesian women.

Starting in August 1997, Indonesia experienced a radical and rapid deterioration in its economy. Between 1996 and 1998, dietary intake during the second trimester was measured in 450 pregnant women in Purworejo, Central Java, Indonesia. Using six 24 h recalls we describe the consequences of the economic crisis on the energy intake of pregnant Indonesian women. Depending on the date of data collection, women were grouped into 'before crisis', 'transition' and 'during crisis'. Mean energy intake among groups was compared using ANOVA and Student's t-test. All groups of pregnant women already had a mean energy intake before the emerging crisis that was lower than the Indonesian recommended dietary allowances (RDA). Nevertheless, energy intake differed significantly among women with different education levels (P = 0.00) and from different socio-economic groups (P = 0.00). 'During transition', a significant decrease in energy intake was experienced by urban poor women (P = 0.01). Poor women with access to rice fields had a higher rice consumption than other groups throughout the period. Our results most likely reflect the effect of higher rice price on income and welfare. 'During crisis', energy intake improved among vulnerable groups, perhaps reflecting government intervention.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Energy intake and expenditure of free-living, lactating Colombian women in an urban setting.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the components of energy balance during lactation in a population of economically disadvantaged women in an urban developing country setting in order to better understand the metabolic response to lactation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparison of lactating (LACT) and non-pregnant non-lactating (NPNL) women. Body size and composition were assessed via anthropometry, energy intake was measured using estimated diet records and energy expenditure using indirect calorimetry and the Flex-Heart Rate method. SETTING: Low-income neighborhoods of Cali, Colombia. SUBJECTS: Lactating women (n=15) studied at 2.4+/-0.8, 5.5+/-0.8 and 8.9+/-1.2 months postpartum, and NPNL women (n=48) studied in three measurement rounds at 0, 3.5+/-0.6 and 7.1+/-1.0 months. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between LACT and NPNL women in anthropometric dimensions, but LACT women showed decreases in waist-hip ratio, lean body mass and increases in mid-arm circumference and percentage body fat with time. Energy intake was higher in LACT women (P=0.04), but there were no significant between-group differences in energy expenditure variables. CONCLUSION: This group of women met the cost of lactation principally via increased energy intake.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Resting metabolic rate and thermic effect of a meal in low- and adequate-energy intake male endurance athletes.

The resting metabolic rate (RMR) and thermic effect of a meal (TEM) were determined in 13 low-energy intake (LOW) and 11 adequate-energy intake (ADQ) male endurance athletes. The LOW athletes reported eating 1,490 kcal.day-1 less than the ADQ group, while the activity level of both groups was similar. Despite these differences, both groups had a similar fat-free mass (FFM) and had been weight stable for at least 2 years. The RMR was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in the LOW group compared to the values of the ADQ group (1.19 vs. 1.29 kcal.FFM-1.hr-1, respectively); this difference represents a lower resting expenditure of 158 kcal.day-1. No differences were found in TEM between the two groups. These results suggest that a lower RMR is one mechanism that contributes to weight maintenance in a group of low- versus adequate-energy intake male athletes.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Total energy intake of the US population: the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1991.

The third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) was conducted to assess the health and nutritional status of the US population. As part of the nutritional status assessment, reliable 24-h dietary recalls were collected for 14,801 examined persons. Mean (+/- SEM) energy intakes are reported for persons aged > or = 2 mo by age, sex, and race-ethnicity. Males had higher mean energy intakes than did females. Energy intakes peaked during late adolescence and young adulthood and declined thereafter. Energy intake patterns were similar among non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and Mexican Americans. Underreporting was addressed by computing a ratio of energy intake (EI) to estimated basal metabolic rate (BMRest). This ratio (EI:BMRest) was 1.47 for adult males and 1.26 for nonpregnant adult females. Overweight adults had a lower mean EI:BMRest (1.09 in females and 1.28 in males). Underreporting in food consumption surveys remains problematic among females and overweight persons.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Performance and body composition of finishing gilts (45 to 85 kilograms) as affected by energy intake and nutrition in earlier life: I. Growth of the body and body components.

Forty-eight commercial hybrid gilts were used to determine the effects of energy intake from 20 to 45 kg on the relationship between energy intake and weight gain of the body and body components from 45 to 85 kg. Two groups of 24 gilts received a single diet either at 2.2 (restricted) or 3.7 (control) times maintenance (M) from 20 to 45 kg. From 45 to 85 kg the pigs were fed the same diet at one of six intake levels (1.7, 2.2, 2.7, 3.2, or 3.7 x M, or ad libitum). At 85 kg, the gilts were dissected into organs, lean tissue (trimmed major joints), and other carcass parts (fat fraction). In the restricted gilts, body and lean tissue gain between 45 and 85 kg increased curvilinearly with increasing energy intake from 432 to 1,412 g/d and from 228 to 507 g/d, respectively. In the control gilts, body and lean tissue gain increased from 394 to 1,201 g/d and from 238 to 508 g/d, respectively. The percentage of lean tissue in the carcass decreased curvilinearly with increasing energy intake from 62.9 to 56.5%, and from 62.5 to 53.9% in the restricted and control gilts, respectively. The restricted gilts gained on average 140 g/d faster (P < .001) and their carcass lean tissue content at slaughter was approximately 3% higher (P < .001). These differences increased with increasing energy level between 45 and 85 kg. The increased gain was largely the result of an increase in organ growth and gut contents and was only evident up to 65 kg. The higher lean content at 85 kg in previously restricted gilts was not the result of compensation in lean gain but was already present at the end of the restriction phase at 45 kg.

Aging↗

PubMed1995

The influence of energy intake on the pathophysiology of Trypanosoma congolense infection in Scottish blackface sheep.

The intensity of parasitaemia, degree of anaemia, live body weight gains and blood biochemical changes were measured in two groups of Scottish Blackface sheep infected experimentally with Trypanosoma congolense and allowed either a high (9.9 MJ metabolisable energy (ME) day-1) or a low (6.1 MJ ME day-1) energy intake. It was observed that infected animals on the low energy intake had a longer mean prepatent period, but following patency they developed more severe anaemia and greater growth retardation than those on the high energy intake. Both infected groups exhibited significant reductions in serum total lipids, phospholipids, plasma cholesterol and albumin. However, these changes were more severe in the animals on the low energy intake than in those on the high energy intake. It was concluded that adequate energy nutrition enhances the ability of infected animals to withstand the adverse effects of infection, by promoting body weight gains and moderating the severity of the pathophysiological changes associated with ovine trypanosomosis.

Anemia↗

PubMed2002

Portion size of food affects energy intake in normal-weight and overweight men and women.

BACKGROUND: Large portions of food may contribute to excess energy intake and greater obesity. However, data on the effects of portion size on food intake in adults are limited. OBJECTIVES: We examined the effect of portion size on intake during a single meal. We also investigated whether the response to portion size depended on which person, the subject or the experimenter, determined the amount of food on the plate. DESIGN: Fifty-one men and women were served lunch 1 d/wk for 4 wk. Lunch included an entrée of macaroni and cheese consumed ad libitum. At each meal, subjects were presented with 1 of 4 portions of the entrée: 500, 625, 750, or 1000 g. One group of subjects received the portion on a plate, and a second group received it in a serving dish and took the amount they desired on their plates. RESULTS: Portion size significantly influenced energy intake at lunch (P < 0.0001). Subjects consumed 30% more energy (676 kJ) when offered the largest portion than when offered the smallest portion. The response to the variations in portion size was not influenced by who determined the amount of food on the plate or by subject characteristics such as sex, body mass index, or scores for dietary restraint or disinhibition. CONCLUSIONS: Larger portions led to greater energy intake regardless of serving method and subject characteristics. Portion size is a modifiable determinant of energy intake that should be addressed in connection with the prevention and treatment of obesity.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

The influence of energy intake on some blood biochemical parameters in Scottish Blackface sheep infected with Trypanosoma congolense.

The intensity of parasitaemia, degree of anaemia, live body weight gains and blood biochemical changes were measured in two groups of Scottish Blackface sheep infected experimentally with Trypanosoma congolense and allowed either a high (9.9 MJ metabolisable energy (ME) per day) or a low (6.1 MJ ME per day) energy intake. It was observed that infected animals on the low energy intake had a longer mean prepatent period, but following patency they developed more severe anaemia and greater growth retardation than those on the high energy intake. Both infected groups exhibited significant reductions in serum total lipids, phospholipids, plasma cholesterol and albumin. However, these changes were more severe in the animals on the low energy intake than in those on the high energy intake. It was concluded that adequate energy nutrition enhances the ability of infected animals to withstand the adverse effects of infection by promoting body weight gains and moderating the severity of the pathophysiological changes associated with ovine trypanosomosis.

3-Hydroxybutyric Acid↗