PubMed Health⌕ Search

SEARCH · PubMed Health

Results for “TOILET FACILITIES”

Explore indexed PubMed citations for clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health research. Read source abstracts and follow each citation to its original PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 343 records · Page 19Linked to original sources
PubMed1989

An outbreak of shigellosis associated with the consumption of raw oysters.

We describe an outbreak of Shigella sonnei infection among 24 persons who had eaten raw oysters in restaurants in southeastern Texas within five days before the onset of symptoms. The oysters in all eight restaurants were supplied by the same dealer, but examination of a routine water sample collected six days before the probable time of contamination showed the waters where the oysters were harvested to be free of fecal contamination, making widespread sewage contamination unlikely. The suspect oysters were traced to a single boat. Stool swabs from that boat's oyster harvesters allowed the identification of one asymptomatic carrier who had a strain of S. sonnei (determined by colicin typing, plasmid analysis, and testing for susceptibility to antibiotics) that was similar to or the same as that infecting the patients. Although the source of this man's infection was unknown, he reported having eaten no oysters. Investigation revealed that 5-gallon (19-liter) pails were used as toilets aboard the oyster boats. Sewage collected in these pails was often dumped overboard into the harvesting area. We conclude that this outbreak of S. sonnei resulted from poor sanitary procedures that probably allowed stool from a carrier to contaminate oysters either just before or after they were taken aboard the boat.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

The Flies and Eyes project: design and methods of a cluster-randomised intervention study to confirm the importance of flies as trachoma vectors in The Gambia and to test a sustainable method of fly control using pit latrines.

The Flies and Eyes project is a community-based, cluster-randomised, intervention trial based in a rural area of The Gambia. It was designed to prove whether flies are mechanical vectors of trachoma; to quantify the relative importance of flies as vectors of trachoma and to test the effectiveness of insecticide spraying and the provision of latrines in trachoma control. A total of 21 clusters, each composed of 300-550 people, are to be recruited in groups of three. One cluster from each group is randomly allocated to receive insecticide spraying, one to receive pit latrines and the remaining to act as a control. The seven groups of clusters are recruited on a step-wise basis separated by two months to aid logistics and allow all seasons to be covered. Standardised, validated trachoma surveys are conducted for people of all ages and both sexes at baseline and six months post intervention. The Muscid fly population is monitored using standard traps and fly-eye contact is measured with catches of flies direct from children's faces. The Flies and Eyes project has been designed to strengthen the evidence base for the 'E' component of the SAFE strategy for trachoma control. The results will assist programme planners and country co-ordinators to make informed decisions on the environmental aspects of trachoma control.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Porcine cysticercosis in village pigs of North-West Cameroon.

A study was carried out in two villages and one marketplace of the Batibo sub-division in North-West Cameroon to determine the prevalence of porcine cysticercosis. The results showed that 4.44% of 383 pigs were positive at tongue examination whereas ELISA detected circulating antigens in 27.7% of 271 pig sera. A questionnaire survey in 140 pig-raising households indicated that 59.3% of them lacked latrines while in 75.7% of the households members defecated directly into pigpens. The seroprevalence of porcine cysticercosis was significantly higher in households without latrines than in those with latrines. Similarly, significantly more seropositive pigs were present in households that defecated in the pig pens (35.5%) than in those that did not (14.4%). Although 91.4% of pig raising households did know of pig cysticercosis, only 28.6% were aware of the link with human taeniasis and only 10.7% were aware of human cysticercosis.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1996

Control of Culex quinquefasciatus in pit latrines, using shredded, waste polystyrene.

As an alternative to the use of commercially available, expanded-polystyrene beads, a study was made of the effectiveness of shredded, waste polystyrene (SWAP) for the control of Culex quinquefasciatus. The relevant physical properties of the SWAP were first investigated in the laboratory. Then, under field conditions in wet pit latrines, mosquito emergence rates were measured before and after application of the material. In the laboratory, when compared with the commercial product, the irregular shape of the SWAP particles greatly reduced their capacity to spread over the water surface and the interstitial air spaces also permitted respiration and development of mosquito larvae. Nevertheless, under field conditions, with careful application of the SWAP over the water surfaces in wet pit latrines, almost complete control of mosquito breeding was observed within a few days. This was sustained for 60 days, at which time observations were discontinued. SWAP appears to offer an effective, cheap and readily available alternative to the commercial product for the control of C. quinquefasciatus. The practicality of using it in community-based, mosquito-control programmes warrants further study.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Assessment of water use and sanitation behavior of a rural area in Bangladesh.

A health development project was established in a rural area of Bangladesh that entailed training village health promoters to provide health education and to motivate families to install tubewells and sanitary latrines. Following a 2-y period of project implementation, the authors sought to assess knowledge and practice of mothers and family members about use of safe water and household tubewells. A household survey in the project area was compared with a similar one in a nearby control area. Three-hundred households in each area were selected, and mothers were interviewed with a standard questionnaire. Significantly more mothers in the health development project area (45.7%) used tubewell water for domestic purposes than in the control area (32.8%). However, hygienic practices of mothers were inadequate. Sanitary latrines were present in less than 20% of households in both areas. Approximately 97% of mothers and 78% of adult family members always used household latrines. However, the use of household latrines by children was low (26.7%). There was no statistically significant difference in the use of household latrines between the project and control areas. The results showed an improvement in use of household tubewells in the project area; however, there was no improvement in sanitation practices of families in the project area. Health education alone, without improvement of socioeconomic status, is not effective in changing behavior.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Investigation of motivational and behavioural factors influencing men who have sex with other men in public toilets (cottaging).

One-hundred-and-thirty-four individuals engaging in cottaging returned postal questionnaires. The sample was mainly urban and gay identified. Cottagers reported that cottaging was one way of meeting partners amongst a range of others they used. Most enjoyed it and felt in control of their cottaging. The majority of cottagers engaged in safer sexual activity, but there were a significant number who engaged in unsafe sexual activity last time they cottaged. Of those who had been voluntarily tested in the past and reported their serostatus, 23% were seropositive. Unsafe sexual activity was unrelated to whether tested or not, known serostatus or knowledge of the risks of transmission.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Laboratory studies on recovery of N and P from human urine through struvite crystallisation and zeolite adsorption.

Struvite [Mg (K, NH4)(PO4) x 6H2O] crystallisation and adsorption to zeolite have been proposed as a method for nutrient recovery from human urine collected with urine separating toilets. The aim of the present study was to optimise the use of MgO (to precipitate struvite) and zeolite (to adsorb ammonia) in this process. The experiments were performed with fresh urine, to which various amounts of MgO and zeolite were added. After repeated stirring and settling for 3 days the supernatant was analysed for pH, total-N, total-P and acute toxicity for Daphnia magna (24- and 48-h EC50). The results show that addition of MgO reduced P and addition of zeolite reduced N in the supernatant, as expected. The required concentration of MgO added was less than expected from the stoichiometric Mg-P-ratio for struvite. In combination with zeolite the requirement for MgO was reduced even further. Zeolite was effective in reducing total-N, but because of its interaction with MgO the effect of zeolite on N as well as P reduction was rather complicated. The optimal combination of MgO and zeolite for combined N and P recovery was found to be around 0.5 MgO per litre urine and 15 g zeolite per litre urine. These additions reduced supernatant P from about 1300 mg l(-1) to 10 mg l(-1) and N from 8000 mg l(-1) to 1000 mg l(-1). The 24-h EC50 for D. magna was not significantly affected by these additions. The expected recovery potentials for P and N by addition of MgO and zeolite are, thus, about 99% for P and 90% for N. However, these figures need to be verified, and pilot plant experiments at a science centre with urine separation wastewater treatment (www.universeum.se) are in progress.

Adsorption↗
PubMed2001

Infections in children under 5 years old and latrine cleanliness.

The aim of this study is to assess the cleanliness of the latrine and its relation to occurrence of disease in children under 5 years old. A stratified random sample of 1327 households was conducted in 11 villages in Upper Egypt. It included a sub-sample of 541 children under 5 years living in households with latrines. The latrine cleanliness was assessed and its relationship to disease occurrence within a period of 2 weeks. Thirty-three percent (33.1%) of children under 5 years old with latrines in their household had infections, compared to 28.3% of those without latrines in the house. Infection with diarrhoea was found most in houses with latrine and water tap. A relation was found between latrine cleanliness score and presence of flies, house building material and maternal education, but none with occurrence of infection in children under 5 years old within a period of 2 weeks.

Child Welfare↗
PubMed2002

Bacterial contamination of Japanese households and related concern about sanitation.

The bacterial contamination of Japanese homes and the attitudes of Japanese people toward sanitation were studied. By taking bacterial counts of approximately 90 places each in five homes, this study found kitchens to have the greatest degree of bacterial contamination, followed by bathing rooms. Toilets had less bacterial contamination than was expected. While concern about bacteria on highly contaminated items such as sponges, towels for wiping counters, and other reservoirs/disseminators was common, there was a relative lack of concern regarding contact surfaces such as dining tables. It is believed that an in-depth study of bacterial contamination in the home and concern about it would lead to the promotion of greater public understanding of home sanitation and help to facilitate the provision of useful information and products to the public.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2003

Sanitation and hygiene in urban and rural households in East Africa.

Latrine possession, disposal of children's faeces and waste-water in 1015 households in 33 sites in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda were studied in 1997. Assistants conducted interviews and observed the state and use of latrines, disposal of children's faeces, wastewater, and household socio-demographic characteristics. Latrine possession was 92.4% in Uganda, 95% in Kenya and 99.5% in Tanzania. In unpiped sites, 73.5% of Ugandan, 90.5% of Tanzanian and 95% of Kenyan households had latrines. Over 30% of latrines in rural Uganda were contaminated with faeces, compared with 10% in Tanzania. More latrines in urban Kenya and Uganda had contaminated surroundings than in the rural areas. The mean number of people using a toilet in the urban areas (10) was significantly higher than in rural areas (7), (F = 45.5; P < 0.001). Toilets in Kenya and Uganda were more likely to be fouled than in Tanzania. Households where the head was an educated professional or business person, or the toilet had a door, lid or concrete wall or floor or waste water was disposed of in the latrine, were less likely to have fouled toilets. Most households disposed of the faeces safely with a few placing them in the garden or elsewhere. The study emphasises the need to promote appropriate sanitation and hygiene.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Sanitation in the developing world: current status and future solutions.

More than a third of the world's population (2.4 billion people) lacks access to adequate excreta disposal. Four in five of these unserved people are in Asia, with approximately one in five in both India and China, respectively. Even in large Asian cities, less than half of those served are using sewerage systems; the others use on-site systems, from pit latrines to septic tanks. Most have been installed by householders or builders employed by them, rather than by government or municipal agencies. Governments, international agencies and municipalities can never hope to meet the immense gap in provision unless they promote sanitation with a marketing approach. A latrine is a consumer durable which must be sold. It is often considered that the constraint to increasing sanitation coverage is a lack of demand, but there is often a lack of supply of appropriate products, and latrine designs are often too expensive for the poor, requiring subsidies which are captured by the better-off. More market research is needed to define the right product and how best to stimulate demand. Where subsidies are used, the promotion, not the production of the latrines must be subsidised to prevent middle-class capture of the subsidy. Promotion is probably best performed by different agencies from those that build latrines. The expertise and marketing capacity of the private sector needs to be brought into play, and public bodies must learn to assist it effectively in bringing sanitation to all.

Communicable Disease Control↗
PubMed2003

Health and social benefits from improving community hygiene and sanitation: an Indian experience.

India is a country where Atomic Age and near Stone Age people co-exist. On one hand India has achieved development in many areas, but on the other hand there is still the practice of open defecation and manual cleaning of human excreta from bucket privies by scavengers. National sanitation coverage is only about 34% meaning that 66% of the population practises open defecation. Such unhygienic conditions lead to infections and high mortality and morbidity in the community. Low sanitation coverage could be due to lack of affordable sanitation technology and awareness or motivation. Although the sewerage system was introduced in India long ago, high operational and maintenance costs have prohibited it from being implemented in most towns and cities. Similarly, the cost of a septic tank is beyond most people, and disposal of undigested sludge from septic tanks remains a problem. In contrast, the pour-flush two-pit toilet (known as Sulabh Shauchalaya) is a low cost, socially acceptable and appropriate technology that does not require scavengers to clean the pits. Sulabh has converted and constructed over 1.2 million such toilets throughout India, making 240 towns scavenger-free. Liberated scavengers are thereby available to take up vocational training in various market-oriented trades enabling self-employment. The on-site/ decentralised systems of waste management has improved community health and hygiene, particularly in socially deprived groups, and reduced the financial burden of local government.

Defecation↗
PubMed2003

Myanmar experiences in sanitation and hygiene promotion: lessons learned and future directions.

Recent activities in connection with the National Sanitation Week (NSW) and Social Mobilisation for Sanitation and Hygiene have contributed to a significant increase in access to sanitary means of excreta disposal, from 45% in 1997 to 67% in 2001. Handwashing with soap and water after defecation has also increased from 18% in 1996 to 43% in 2001. Success is attributable to high level political commitment, state or division level action and community mobilisation by village level authorities. Multi-level efforts such as mass media, planning workshops, training sessions and house-to-house visits by village authorities and health officials have raised greater awareness of sanitation and hygiene issues and led to construction of latrines on a self-help basis. The challenge ahead is to give greater attention to the 'hard to reach' who live in less accessible areas and are more resistant to change. The 2002 NSW has accordingly given special emphasis to activities in 73 of 324 townships where 50% or more of the households have no access to a sanitary latrine. The communication and social mobilisation package has been improved to upgrading unsanitary latrines and integrating handwashing more systematically with promotion of sanitary latrines. Programmatic follow-up to the NSW is being provided in selected townships through more intensive social mobilisation for 'hard to reach' households and activity-based school sanitation and hygiene education. This approach will contribute further towards improved hygienic practices and reduce diarrhoeal morbidity and mortality.

Communicable Disease Control↗