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PubMed2004

Nixtamalized flour from quality protein maize (Zea mays L). optimization of alkaline processing.

Quality of maize proteins is poor, they are deficient in the essential amino acids lysine and tryptophan. Recently, in Mexico were successfully developed nutritionally improved 26 new hybrids and cultivars called quality protein maize (QPM) which contain greater amounts of lysine and tryptophan. Alkaline cooking of maize with lime (nixtamalization) is the first step for producing several maize products (masa, tortillas, flours, snacks). Processors adjust nixtamalization variables based on experience. The objective of this work was to determine the best combination of nixtamalization process variables for producing nixtamalized maize flour (NMF) from QPM V-537 variety. Nixtamalization conditions were selected from factorial combinations of process variables: nixtamalization time (NT, 20-85 min), lime concentration (LC, 3.3-6.7 g Ca(OH)2/l, in distilled water), and steep time (ST, 8-16 hours). Nixtamalization temperature and ratio of grain to cooking medium were 85 degrees C and 1:3 (w/v), respectively. At the end of each cooking treatment the steeping started for the required time. Steeping was finished by draining the cooking liquor (nejayote). Nixtamal (alkaline-cooked maize kernels) was washed with running tap water. Wet nixtamal was dried (24 hours, 55 degrees C) and milled to pass through 80-US mesh screen to obtain NMF. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied as optimization technique, over four response variables: In vitro protein digestibility (PD), total color difference (deltaE), water absorption index (WAI), and pH. Predictive models for response variables were developed as a function of process variables. Conventional graphical method was applied to obtain maximum PD, WAI and minimum deltaE, pH. Contour plots of each of the response variables were utilized applying superposition surface methodology, to obtain three contour plots for observation and selection of best combination of NT (31 min), LC (5.4 g Ca(OH)2/l), and ST (8.1 hours) for producing optimized NMF from QPM.

Calcium Compounds↗

PubMed2004

Expression of cold-tolerant pyruvate, orthophosphate dikinase cDNA, and heterotetramer formation in transgenic maize plants.

Maize is a typical C4 plant of the NADP-malic enzyme type, and its high productivity is supported by the C4 photosynthetic cycle, which concentrates atmospheric CO2 in the leaves. The plant exhibits superior photosynthetic ability under high light and high temperature, but under cold conditions the photosynthetic rate is significantly reduced. Pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK), a key enzyme of the C4 pathway in maize, loses its activity below about 12 degrees C by dissociation of the tetramer and it is considered as one possible cause of the reduction in the photosynthetic rate of maize at low temperatures. To improve the cold stability of the enzyme, we introduced a cold-tolerant PPDK cDNA isolated from Flaveria brownii into maize by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. We obtained higher levels of expression by using a double intron cassette and a chimeric cDNA made from F. bidentis and F. brownii with a maximum content of I mg/g fresh weight. In leaves of transgenic maize, PPDK molecules produced from the transgene were detected in cold-tolerant homotetramers or in heterotetramers of intermediate cold susceptibility formed with the internal PPDK. Simultaneous introduction of an antisense gene for maize PPDK generated plants in which the ratio of heterolologous and endogenous PPDK was greatly improved. Arrhenius plot analysis of the enzyme extracted from one such plant revealed that the break point was shifted about 3 degrees C lower than that of the wild type.

Cold Temperature↗

PubMed2005

Effects of Bt maize-fed prey on the generalist predator Poecilus cupreus L. (Coleoptera: Carabidae).

We investigated the effects of transgenic maize (Zea mays) expressing Bacillus thuringienses toxin (Bt maize) on larval and adult Poecilus cupreus carabid beetles in laboratory studies. In no-choice trials, neonate P. cupreus larvae were fed exclusively with Spodoptera littoralis caterpillars, which had been raised on Bt maize. S. littoralis raised on conventional maize or "high quality" Calliphora sp. pupae were fed to the beetle larvae in two control treatments. Bt-maize-fed caterpillar prey increased mortality to 100% within 40 days. The experiment was repeated with 10-day-old beetle larvae. Bt treatment resulted in fewer pupae than in both controls, and in a higher mortality than in the Calliphora control. S. littoralis was suitable as exclusive prey in no-choice tests, at least for 40 days, although prey quality seemed to be low compared to Calliphora pupae. The observed effects are most likely indirect effects due to further reduced nutritional prey quality. However, direct effects cannot be excluded. In the second part of the study, exposure of P. cupreus to Bt intoxicated prey was examined in paired-choice tests. Adult beetles were offered a choice between different prey conditions (frozen and thawed, freshly killed or living), prey types (S. littoralis caterpillars, Calliphora sp. pupae, cereal aphids) and prey treatments (raised on Bt or conventional maize). Living prey was preferred to frozen and dead prey. Caterpillars were only preferred to fly pupae and aphids when living. Prey treatment seemed to be least important for prey selection. The tests showed that P. cupreus ingested caterpillars readily and there was no evidence of them avoiding Bt containing prey, which means exposure in the field could occur. The presented protocols are a first step towards ecological risk assessment for carabid beetles.

Animals↗

PubMed2007

A wheat genomic DNA fragment reduces pollen transmission of maize transgenes by reducing pollen viability.

A genomic DNA fragment from wheat carrying the Glu-1Dx5 gene has been shown to exhibit reduced pollen transmission in transgenic maize. To localize the region of the DNA fragment responsible for this reduced pollen transmission, we produced transgenic maize plants in which the wheat genomic DNA proximal to the 1Dx5 coding sequence was replaced with the maize 27 kDa gamma-zein promoter. Like the wheat promoter-driven Glu-1Dx5 transgene, this zein promoter-driven transgene functioned to produce 1Dx5 in maize endosperm. However, with the zein promoter-driven transgene, pollen transmission of the transgene loci was normal in most self- and cross-pollinations. We concluded that the wheat genomic DNA proximal to the wheat 1Dx5 coding sequence was required for reduced pollen transmission of the transgene in maize. In two of four transformation events of the wheat promoter-driven construct examined, pollen exhibited two morphological classes. In one class, pollen was normal in morphology and displayed average viability, and in the second, pollen was reduced in size and did not germinate on artificial media. DNA from the transgene was detectable in mature pollen from plants with reduced pollen transmission of transgene loci. To explain these observations, we hypothesize that elements within the transgene construct interfere with pollen development. We demonstrated that the wheat genomic DNA fragment can be used to control pollen transmission of an herbicide resistance transgene genetically linked to it. The wheat genomic DNA fragment may contain elements that are useful for controlling pollen transmission of transgene loci in commercial maize grain and seed production.

DNA↗

PubMed1989

Structure, evolution and anaerobic regulation of a nuclear gene encoding cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from maize.

A nuclear gene encoding cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from maize (subunit GAPC1, gene Gpc1) and 2.2 x 10(3) base-pairs of its 5' flanking region have been cloned and sequenced. The structure of the maize Gpc1 gene (10 introns) is different from that of the maize gene encoding subunit GAPA of chloroplast glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (1 intron) and relatively similar to that of the chicken gene (11 introns). Introns in the Gpc1 gene show a positional polarity; the more 3' their position, the more they are displaced relative to introns in the chicken gene. The Gpc1 gene and other nuclear genes from maize are associated with CpG islands, the relative size of which determines the degree of codon bias in the gene. The promoter of the maize Gpc1 gene contains an anaerobic regulatory element and a pyrimidine box upstream from the TATA box and within intron 1. Southern blotting analyses and Northern hybridizations suggest that there are three functional Gpc genes in maize whose transcript levels are controlled differentially by anaerobiosis. In spite of its "typical" anaerobic promoter, the Gpc1 gene does not seem to be an anaerobic gene in vivo.

Anaerobiosis↗

PubMed1988

Characterization of catalase transcripts and their differential expression in maize.

In maize, the three unlinked catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) structural genes (Cat1, Cat2 and Cat3) are differentially expressed temporally, spatially and in response to environmental signals in the developing seedling. In order to understand more fully the molecular mechanisms involved in catalase gene expression, full-length cDNA clones representing the maize Cat1, Cat2 and Cat3 transcripts were isolated and characterized. DNA sequence analysis confirmed that each cDNA encodes a unique catalase protein. Gene-specific probes for the three maize catalase cDNAs were isolated and used to probe blots of poly(A)+ RNA isolated from various maize tissues. Cat1 mRNA was found in scutella, milky endosperm of immature kernels, leaves and epicotyls. The Cat2 mRNA was present primarily in post-germinative scutella, with lower levels in leaves and epicotyls. Cat3 mRNA was detected primarily in epicotyls and, to a lesser extent, in leaves and scutella. The gene-specific probes hybridized with maize genomic DNA blots in simple, but unique patterns, indicating that there is one, or a very few copies of each catalase gene. The coding region of the Cat3 cDNA comprised 66% G + C, which led to a strong codon usage bias in this gene. This codon bias was also seen with the Cat2 transcripts, but not with those for Cat1. A high degree of similarity was found between the maize catalase nucleic acid and deduced amino-acid sequences and those of sweet potato and rat liver catalase.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1991

Characterization of the structure and transcription of an ubiquitin fusion gene from maize.

We have identified a maize ubiquitin (Ubi) fusion gene (UBF9) by screening a maize W22 genomic phage lambda library with a short (16-nucleotide) oligodeoxyribonucleotide probe derived from the sequence for the extension sequence of a yeast UB13 fusion gene. UBF9 consists of an UB monomer sequence (228 bp long) joined to an extension sequence (237 bp long). The extension sequence encodes a protein of 79 amino acids which shares extensive identity with similar extension aa sequences found in yeast, humans, barley and Arabidopsis thaliana. UBF9 encodes a small-size class of Ubi mRNAs in the maize tissues investigated. The UBF9 transcript is present in high levels in maize endosperm tissues 22 days after pollination. Genomic Southern blots of maize inbred W22 DNA indicate that the fusion gene sequences are present in multiple copies in the maize genome. Primer extension experiments indicate that the transcription start point is located at 80 bp upstream from the translation start codon of UBF9. Two 37-bp tandem repeated A + T-rich sequences are found in the 5'-flanking region of UBF9. The A + T-rich sequences share the motif, AATATTTTATT, which is present in a diverse set of plant genes.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2006

Molecular cloning and heterologous expression of beta1,2-xylosyltransferase and core alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase from maize.

Maize is considered a promising alternative production system for pharmaceutically relevant proteins. However, like in all other plant species asparagine-linked oligosaccharides of maize glycoproteins are modified with beta1,2-xylose and core alpha1,3-fucose sugar residues, which are considered to be immunogenic in mammals. This altered N-glycosylation when compared to mammalian cells may reduce the potential of maize as a production system for heterologous glycoproteins. Here we report the cloning and characterization of the cDNA sequences coding for the maize enzymes beta1,2-xylosyltransferase (XylT) and core alpha1,3-fucosyltransferase (FucT). The cloned XylT and FucT cDNAs were shown to encode enzymatically active proteins, which were independently able to convert a mammalian acceptor glycoprotein into an antigen binding anti-plant N-glycan antibodies. The complete sequence of the XylT gene was determined. Evidence for the presence of at least three XylT and FucT gene loci in the maize genome was obtained. The identification of the two enzymes and their genes will allow the targeted downregulation or even elimination of beta1,2-xylose and core alpha1,3-fucose addition to recombinant glycoproteins produced in maize.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1999

Maize meal, non-esterified linoleic acid, and endemic cancer of the esophagus--preliminary findings.

Endemic cancer of the esophagus has shown a positive association with the consumption of maize meal. It has been postulated that this association is due to the conversion, in the stomach mucosa, of the linoleic acid contained in maize meal to prostaglandin E2. The proportion of non-esterified linoleic acid available in the stomach may therefore be an important factor. Samples of commercially prepared maize flour, cooked and uncooked, and other maize-based foods were analysed for total and free content of various fatty acids using gas-liquid chromatography. High levels of non-esterified fatty acids (11 to 42% of contained fatty acids) were found both in maize meal and in foods prepared from it. In food prepared from maize meal, 49 mg to 363 mg non-esterified linoleic acid per 100-g sample was found. High levels of non-esterified linoleic acid in the diet, causing raised intragastric production of prostaglandin E2 and profoundly affecting the normal pH and fluid content of the esophagus, may create a predisposition to esophageal carcinogenesis.

Corn Oil↗

PubMed2001

Cloning and expression analysis of hemoglobin genes from maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and teosinte (Zea mays ssp. parviglumis).

With the exception of barley and rice, little is known about the existence of hemoglobins (Hbs) in cereals. This work reports the cloning and analysis of hb genes from maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) and teosinte (Zea mays ssp. parviglumis). Coding sequences of maize and teosinte hb genes (hbm and hbt, respectively) are highly similar to each other and are interrupted by three introns located at identical positions as other plant hb genes. Sequences of predicted Hbm and Hbt proteins are identical. The hydropathic profile of Hbm and Hbt is highly similar to that of rice Hb1, suggesting that Hbm, Hbt and Hb1 have the same tertiary structure and biochemical properties. Expression analysis showed that low levels of Hb transcripts, but considerable levels of Hb proteins exist in maize embryonic organs. No Hb transcripts and proteins were detected in teosinte embryonic organs. Low levels of Hb proteins, but no Hb transcripts, were detected in maize and teosinte vegetative organs. These observations suggest that the regulation of hb genes is different in maize and teosinte embryonic organs, and that the expression of hb genes is down- or up-regulated in maize and teosinte, respectively, from germination to vegetative growing.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1998

Expression cloning in Fe2+ transport defective yeast of a novel maize MYC transcription factor.

A complementation approach of the yeast fet3fet4 mutant strain, defective in both low- and high-affinity iron transport, was initiated as an attempt to characterize the Fe(III)-mugineic acid (MA) transporter from grasses. A maize cDNA encoding a novel MYC transcription factor, named 7E, was cloned by screening an iron-deficient maize root cDNA expression library on a minimum media containing Fe(III)-deoxyMA as a unique iron source. 7E expression restored growth specifically to the fet3 fet4 mutant strain. It did not affect growth rate of a trk1trk2 potassium transport defective yeast strain or parental W303 strain growth rate. No 55Fe uptake increase was observed in 7E transformed fet3 fet4 yeast during short-term kinetics. However, the iron accumulation in these cells was 1.3-fold higher than in untransformed cells after a 24-h period. The 7E protein contained 694 amino acids and had a predicted molecular mass of 74.2kDa. It had 44% identity with the RAP-1 protein, a 67.9-kDa MYC-like protein from Arabidopsis thaliana which binds the G-box sequence via a basic region helix-loop-helix (bHLH), without requiring heterodimerization with MYB proteins. Phylogenic comparisons revealed that the maize 7E protein was related to the Arabidopsis thaliana RAP-1 protein and to the Phaseolus vulgaris PG1. This similarity was particularly evident for the bHLH domain, which was 95% identical between maize 7E and Arabidopsis thaliana RAP-1. 7E, RAP-1 and PG-1 proteins revealed a plant MYC-like sub-family that was more related to the maize repressor-like IN1 than to maize R proteins. 7E mRNA was detected in both roots and leaves by the Northern analysis. The amount of 7E mRNA increased, in response to iron starvation, by 20 and 40% in roots and leaves, respectively. The relationship between iron metabolism and myc expression in animal cells is discussed.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1999

Characterization of a maize heat-shock protein 101 gene, HSP101, encoding a ClpB/Hsp100 protein homologue.

Heat shock protein 101 (HSP101) cDNA and genomic clones from maize have been isolated. The structure of maize HSP101 reveals the presence of six exons interrupted by five introns. Maize HSP101 contains a predicted open reading frame that translates into a 912-aa sequence with a mass of 101kDa. Initiation of transcription was mapped 146 bases upstream of the AUG codon. Five heat shock element (HSE) boxes were found within the proximal 289 bases of the promoter region. Southern blot analysis of genomic DNA indicates that the maize genome contains only one copy of HSP101. A protein sequence comparison showed that maize Hsp101 belongs to the heat shock 100kDa and caseino-lytic protease B protein family (Hsp100/ClpB) that plays important roles in bacteria and yeast in the survival to extremely high temperatures and the control of proteolysis. Accumulation of HSP101 mRNA was strong under heat shock conditions, but not detectable after cold or osmotic stress treatments or by exogenous application of ABA. The analysis of the predicted supersecondary structure of maize Hsp101 showed that a coiled-coil located in the middle region of the protein is evolutionarily conserved in all members of the Clp A, B and C subfamilies. It is proposed that these supersecondary structures may have important roles in Clp function.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed1976

Hybridization of maize chloroplast DNA with transfer ribonucleic acids.

Hybridization of [125I] tRNA to chloroplast DNA indicates that 0.60-0.75% of maize chloroplast DNA contains sequences complementary to maize tRNA, corresponding to 20-26 tRNA cistrons. Green maize seedlings contain about twice the amount of chloroplast DNA-hybridizable tRNA as etiolated maize seedings. tRNA from green or etiolated maize seedlings was also aminoacylated in vitro with 21 labeled amino acids and then incubated with filters containing chloroplast DNA, tRNAs charging a total of at least 16 different amino acids hybridized with chloroplast DNA. Most of these plastid aminoacyl-tRNAs were present in higher concentrations in tRNA isolated from green maize seedlings, although there were several exceptions. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that a complete or nearly complete set or tRNAs can be transcribed from chloroplast DNA.

Amino Acids↗

PubMed2001

Assessment of home-based processing methods to reduce the phytate content and phytate/zinc molar ratio of white maize (Zea mays).

Various methods of processing maize suitable for household use in rural Malawi, Central Africa, were investigated for their ability to reduce its phytate content and phytate/zinc molar ratio. These methods included fermentation, germination, and soaking. Penta- and hexainositol phosphates were measured by HPLC, and zinc was measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Natural lactic fermentation of maize flour slurries resulted in 88% phytate retention compared to unprocessed, unrefined maize flour porridges, whereas lower phytate retention was observed when a starter culture (61%) or germinated flour (71%) was also used. Fermentation of cooked maize flour porridges with germinated flour added resulted in 54-85% retention of phytate compared to controls. Soaking maize flour or pounded maize and decanting excess water resulted in 43 and 49% retention of phytate, respectively. The latter soaking procedures were simple and effective and were suitable for household use in rural Malawian communities.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗

PubMed2001

Fluorescence polarization as a means for determination of fumonisins in maize.

Fumonisins, mycotoxins produced by certain species of Fusaria, are commonly found worldwide as contaminants in maize. This paper reports the development of a rapid, portable fluorescence polarization-based assay for fumonisins in maize. The assay was based on the competition of unlabeled fumonisin, from a sample, with a fluorescently tagged fumonisin (FB(1)-FL) for a fumonisin-specific monoclonal antibody in solution. The fluorescence polarization (FP) of the tagged fumonisin was increased upon binding with the antibody. In the presence of free toxin, less of the FB(1)-FL was bound and the polarization signal was decreased. The assays were very simple to perform, requiring only mixing of an aqueous extract of maize with the tagged fumonisin and antibody, and required <2 min per sample, excluding extraction time. Two permutations of the assay were tested, one with each sample matrix serving as its own blank, and the other with all of the samples compared relative to a PBS blank with normalization of the data similar to an ELISA. The limit of detection, defined as the toxin content associated with a fluorescence polarization signal 5 standard deviations from that of a fumonisin-free control, was 0.5 microg of FB(1)/g in spiked maize. Recoveries from spiked maize over the range of 0.5-20 ppm averaged 94.3 +/- 13.8%. Forty-eight samples of field-contaminated maize were tested by the FP and an established HPLC method, with a good correlation between the two (r(2) = 0.85-0.88). For these samples, the two variations of the FP assay also compared well to one another (r(2) = 0.97), suggesting the assay principle is very robust. The results, combined with the speed and ease of use for the assay, suggest that this technology has substantial potential as a screening tool for mycotoxins in foods.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed2003

Quantitation of Bt-176 maize genomic sequences by surface plasmon resonance-based biospecific interaction analysis of multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based biosensors have been described for the identification of genetically modified organisms (GMO) by biospecific interaction analysis (BIA). This paper describes the design and testing of an SPR-based BIA protocol for quantitative determinations of GMOs. Biotinylated multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) products from nontransgenic maize as well as maize powders containing 0.5 and 2% genetically modified Bt-176 sequences were immobilized on different flow cells of a sensor chip. After immobilization, different oligonucleotide probes recognizing maize zein and Bt-176 sequences were injected. The results obtained were compared with Southern blot analysis and with quantitative real-time PCR assays. It was demonstrated that sequential injections of Bt-176 and zein probes to sensor chip flow cells containing multiplex PCR products allow discrimination between PCR performed using maize genomic DNA containing 0.5% Bt-176 sequences and that performed using maize genomic DNA containing 2% Bt-176 sequences. The efficiency of SPR-based BIA in discriminating material containing different amounts of Bt-176 maize is comparable to real-time quantitative PCR and much more reliable than Southern blotting, which in the past has been used for semiquantitative purposes. Furthermore, the approach allows the BIA assay to be repeated several times on the same multiplex PCR product immobilized on the sensor chip, after washing and regeneration of the flow cell. Finally, it is emphasized that the presented strategy to quantify GMOs could be proposed for all of the SPR-based, commercially available biosensors. Some of these optical SPR-based biosensors use, instead of flow-based sensor chips, stirred microcuvettes, reducing the costs of the experimentation.

DNA, Plant↗

PubMed2005

Application of immunoaffinity column as cleanup tool for an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay of phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase detection in genetically modified maize and rape.

We have developed a new immunoassay method to detect genetically modified (GM) maize and rape containing phosphinothricin-N-acetyltransferase (PAT). PAT encoded by Bialaphos resistance gene (bar) was highly expressed in soluble form in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) and purified to homogeneity by Ni2+ affinity chromatography. A simple and efficient extraction and purification procedure of PAT from GM maize and rape was developed by means of the immunoaffinity column (IAC) as a cleanup tool. Purified polyclonal antibodies against PAT was produced and coupled covalently to CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B. Both the binding conditions and elution protocols were optimized. The IAC was successfully employed to isolate and purify the PAT from the various tissues of GM maize (Bt11 and Bt176) and rapes (MS1/RF1 and MS8/RF3). Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) procedures were established further on to measure the PAT protein. GM maize cannot be differentiated from non-GM maize by ELISA. But IAC-ELISA allowed 0.5% GMOs to be detected in MS1/RF1 and MS8/RF3 and 10% GMOs to be detected in Bt11 and Bt176, which makes this method an acceptable method to access PAT protein in GM rapes and maize.

Acetyltransferases↗

PubMed2005

Rapid detection of kernel rots and mycotoxins in maize by near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy.

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is a practical spectroscopic procedure for the detection of organic compounds in matter. It is particularly useful because of its nondestructiveness, accuracy, rapid response, and easy operation. This work assesses the applicability of NIR for the rapid identification of micotoxigenic fungi and their toxic metabolites produced in naturally and artificially contaminated products. Two hundred and eighty maize samples were collected both from naturally contaminated maize crops grown in 16 areas in north-central Italy and from ears artificially inoculated with Fusarium verticillioides. All samples were analyzed for fungi infection, ergosterol, and fumonisin B1 content. The results obtained indicated that NIR could accurately predict the incidence of kernels infected by fungi, and by F. verticillioides in particular, as well as the quantity of ergosterol and fumonisin B1 in the meal. The statistics of the calibration and of the cross-validation for mold infection and for ergosterol and fumonisin B1 contents were significant. The best predictive ability for the percentage of global fungal infection and F. verticillioides was obtained using a calibration model utilizing maize kernels (r2 = 0.75 and SECV = 7.43) and maize meals (r2 = 0.79 and SECV = 10.95), respectively. This predictive performance was confirmed by the scatter plot of measured F. verticillioides infection versus NIR-predicted values in maize kernel samples (r2 = 0.80). The NIR methodology can be applied for monitoring mold contamination in postharvest maize, in particular F. verticilliodes and fumonisin presence, to distinguish contaminated lots from clean ones, and to avoid cross-contamination with other material during storage and may become a powerful tool for monitoring the safety of the food supply.

Fusarium↗