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PubMed2001

Importance of the traceability of animals and animal products in epidemiology.

Traceability of animals and animal products has become a priority for governments of the developed countries, due to consumer demand for comprehensive and integrated food safety policies. In addition to analysing the differences between traceback and traceability systems, the authors describe some applications of animal traceback systems and the principal characteristics of an animal identification and registration system. The importance of a traceability system for food-borne risk assessment and management, and the most recent approaches towards a comprehensive and integrated animal health and food safety policy are reported.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2001

Biological identification systems: genetic markers.

Individual animals differ from each other on a number of biological levels. At the most basic level, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of each animal is different, and transcription of the DNA code yields variations at the protein level, which in turn give rise to individual diversity at the physical level. In recent years, accessing the primary genetic code of individual animals has become straightforward. The authors briefly review the development of biological identification technologies and then consider in more detail the application of current DNA testing technologies to issues of traceability of live animals and derived products. Although largely focused on cattle and beef traceability, the principles described are relevant to ovine, porcine and equine traceability. The accelerating pace of innovation and development within the field of molecular genetics suggests that the technologies described may soon be superseded. However, the principles of genetic identification will remain unchanged.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed2001

Traceability of poultry and poultry products.

Traceability of animals and animal products is becoming an essential marketing requirement necessary to meet heightened consumer expectations, particularly with respect to food safety. Traceability is a fundamental part of the management and audit systems that have been developed to provide assurances to the consumer. Most poultry products are produced by large companies who control all facets of production to an extraordinary level. The primary breeding, commercial breeding and production stages of poultry production have had to develop comprehensive recording and traceability systems, for productivity rather than public health reasons. These systems are principally documentary trails on an individual flock basis. Each flock comprises a unit having the same or similar status. Individual identification of poultry is not generally practised commercially, except in elite breeding stock. Traceability systems are being expanded in the production, processing and distribution areas to accommodate consumer concerns regarding public health and other issues. The nature of the industry and the level of controls applied by the poultry sector can provide sound and sustainable guarantees to the consumer. Future development lies in the wider application of sophisticated computerised systems at primary and further processing levels, to ensure that traceability can be maintained.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed2006

The implementation of traceability systems.

Traceability is a tool to help countries meet their objectives of controlling, preventing and eradicating animal diseases. This article sets out the required steps in a traceability system. Before designing a system of traceability, one must identify the different characteristics that need to be traced throughout the various steps in the food production chain. The interaction between different sectors in defining the objectives and the resulting needs of a traceability system is fundamental. A clear legal framework is also indispensable. European Union (EU) legislation requires identification and registration for cattle, pigs, sheep and goats. For intra-EU trade these animals must be accompanied by a health certificate providing information on their identity and health status. The required identification is harmonised on an EU-wide basis with the aim of ensuring traceability for veterinary purposes. Furthermore EU legislation requires that the traceability of food, feed and food-producing animals be established at all stages of production.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed1996

[I&R (identification and registration) system cattle: an analysis of its use during a foot-and-mouth-disease outbreak in The Netherlands].

The performance of the Dutch cattle I&R system was analysed, with emphasis on the potential use of the system for the control of an outbreak of foot and mouth disease (FMD). The analysis showed that not all mutations were centrally registered within the three working days that are allowed to pass between the actual change and the obligatory report. In particular, young calves and cattle heading for slaughter were reported too late. During an outbreak of FMD, the best strategy to trace animals off a farm seems to be first to identify all animals on the farm, using a preprocessed list of the animals that should be present on the farm according to the I&R system. Then all the animals that have left the farm during the last month can be traced in the central I&R computer or by asking the person to whom the farmer sold the cattle (the next owner). In the present study, 54% of the animals were localized within one day, and 94% within one week. Finally, some suggestions for improvement for the system are given.

Animal Husbandry↗
PubMed1998

[Marking of horses].

The author informs on up to date identification methods of horses. The implantation of passive transponders is a practicable method for marking of horses. Because it gives less pain to horses, this method is to prefer. Stress inflicted on horse is minimal, it compares to a intramuscular injection. The reliability of the system in use has so far been very high. Members of ISO have voted overwhelmingly in favor of a standard for electronic identification of animals. From now on, countries and user organizations can make use of this technique to identify animals and if used can rely on the fact that their animals can be uniquely identified all over the world.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed2004

[Techniques and possibilities of traceability of food: genotyping of the domestic animal population as an innovative contribution to food safety].

Traceability of meat has become a very important aspect of quality assurance of food. DNA analyses could be used for identification and verification of farm animals and animal derived products. A prerequisite is the collection of qualified samples from entire populations of production animals or from regionally or specially characterised animal populations. The expenditure for conventional carrying out collection, preservation, cataloguing, and storage would be enormous. Therefore we have developed a simple, reliable, and inexpensive method for the collection using the ear tagging process and for preservation of samples at room temperature. A similar collection technology can also be used for sampling of carcasses, meat and meat products. Isolation of DNA from these tissue samples can be preformed using a new single step technology. For identifying individuals microsatellites and single nucleotide polymorphisms are analysed. Comparison of DNA fingerprints or SNP signatures allows to traceback samples collected from products to the animals they are coming from. If the system will be established on a nationwide basis the total costs would be less than 0.05 EUR per kilogram meat sold.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed1998

An automated system, based on microchips, for monitoring individual activity in wild small mammals.

A new battery-operated system based on microchips has been developed for detecting free-moving, wild small mammals. An electronic identification unit connected to a portable data-logger can simultaneously accommodate up to eight detector antennae, which are positioned in the habitat of the species under study. The system can operate even in extreme weather conditions and has the capacity to distinguish and record individual mammals entering burrows or visiting artificial feeding stations. Detection events are stored in a data-logger and subsequently can be edited and analysed by many common software packages. A pilot study tested the system by monitoring the visits of three species of small mammals to artificial feeding stations. Further possible applications are discussed.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed2005

Development of a genetic traceability test in pig based on single nucleotide polymorphism detection.

In order to assure traceability along the meat transformation process, a powerful system is required. The administrative traceability shows limits that the use of genetic markers could overcome. The individual genomes contain sequence differences, basis of the genetic polymorphism of which the genetic markers are the witnesses. Among them, two classes seem to dominate on the traceability field: the microsatellites and the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). The aim of this work was to develop a genetic traceability test in pig based on SNPs mainly located in 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs). A set of 21 SNP markers including new SNPs identified in this study and SNPs previously described was selected. A genotyping assay was performed on 96 individuals representing the major crossbred of the pig population in Belgium. Results showed that all individuals tested presented a different genotype. This genotyping method might help the administrative system to guarantee the traceability of pork meat along the transformation process.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed2000

Study of the dog population and the rabies control activities in the Mirigama area of Sri Lanka.

The national health authorities of Sri Lanka have adopted a combined strategy of rabies vaccination and stray dog removal to control endemic dog rabies. Despite the control efforts, an increase of animal and human rabies cases has occurred since 1994. As a consequence, a project to evaluate the national rabies control program has been started and a study focussing on the dog population and rabies control activities in a limited area of Mirigama was conducted. Information on canine abundance and the accessibility of dogs for rabies vaccination was obtained by a household survey, vaccination of dogs against rabies at several vaccination points, collar-marking, and transect line recapture. The number of unvaccinated dogs was estimated by using Bayesian methodology. The estimated number of dogs per square kilometre was 87 (95% credibility interval: 80, 93) for owned dogs and 108 (100, 116) for owned and ownerless dogs. Coverage after the immunisation campaign was 57.6% (53.3, 61.9%) if vaccination at the vaccination points was considered and 66% (60.4, 72.0%) if recently provided vaccination by private veterinarians was also taken into account. The proportion of households with at least one dog vaccinated varied between 59.1 and 94.2% within the catchment area of the different vaccination points. Unvaccinated dogs were puppies (12%), ownerless dogs (57%), and owned dogs, which were not presented for vaccination (31%). In order to improve the rabies immunisation coverage among dogs and to achieve complete elimination of rabies it was recommended that the 95% catchment area of each vaccination point be assessed, the distribution of vaccination points in the vaccination area be redefined if necessary, a system for the vaccination of dogs missing the vaccination campaign for dog owner-specific reasons be established, and an inexpensive marking system be used for vaccinated dogs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1979

A visual display board used for efficient breeding and utilization of an athymic (nude) mouse colony.

A visual display board was designed to aid in the management of a barrier sustained athymic (nude) mouse colony. The board displayed pertinent information for breeding and weaning, including phenotype and age for each animal in the colony. In addition, the board showed the availability and current status of experimental groups. This system provided an efficient means of organizing production and planning utilization of animals in the colony.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Implantation of transponders at the bottom of the ear in equines].

In the present work transponders of 2 identification systems have been implanted on an exactly defined site at the bottom of the ear on 28 horses. The Backhome system is easier to handle and less complicated than the trovan system since it is smaller and handier. The hemorrhages that had occurred after the injection were mild at 17 animals and moderate at 4 animals. Inflame changes at the injection site post application were limited to minor swellings (n = 3) and minor pain (n = 6). The interrogator's scope of the two transponder systems is different. The interrogator's scope of the trovan transponder was approximate 5 to 10 cm and of the Backhome transponder approximate 15 to 25 cm resulting in a higher benefit. All 14 slaughtered horses were examined pathologically in different periods and two transponders were found to have changed their sites considerably at approximately 8 to 10 cm compared with the initial injection site. The connective tissue surrounding the transponder was transparent and thin in cases where the transponder had been implanted 30 days ago or earlier, histopathologically the tissue thickness changed. Inflammatory changes appeared in 3 cases as a minor perivasculitis and in further 5 cases as a collection of single siderophages. In the remaining 5 cases no inflammation was determined. The minor changes and lack of inflammation reflect the high biocompatibility of transponders.

Animal Identification Systems↗
PubMed2000

[Food safety achieved through herd management].

Most animal-derived food products originate from production chains consisting of a series of well-defined, separate production steps. Undesired events affecting food safety can principally occur at any point within the production chain. The principle of integrated food safety assurance from stable to table has therefore been established. The livestock holding has thus to be understood as a fix element of the production chain, and the producer has to accept a part of the responsibility for food safety. On a farm, food safety can be negatively affected by animal feed (microbiological or toxicological contamination), management (hygiene, stocking density, cleaning and disinfecting), veterinary treatments (use of antibiotics) and recycling of slurry. Most relevant practices can be summarised under the standard of "good farming practice". HACCP programmes as they are applied in the processing industries could in principle also be used at the farm level. Influential management steps would need to be identified and controlled. This approach is, however, still in its infancy at present. Using the current monitoring systems, microbiological and toxicological problems in food are difficult to be identified before the end of the production chain. As the cause of a problem can be found at the farm level, traceability of products through the production chain is essential. In Switzerland, traceability of animals is realised using compulsory animal identification and the animal movement database. Using this link, information on the health status of a herd could be made available to the slaughterhouse in order to classify animals into food-safety risk categories. This principle is a key element in the ongoing discussion about visual meat inspection in Europe and elsewhere.

Animal Husbandry↗