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PubMed1982

Oralism and the deaf child's brain: a reply to Dr. Conrad.

One of the most contentious and important issues in the education of deaf children concerns the nature of the medium that should be used. The argument is whether the language of the hearing society should be used (Oralism) or a visual manual language together with speech (Total Communication or bilingualism). Recently Conrad [6,7] has claimed that the exclusive use of Oral methods fails to provide the deaf child's brain with sufficient linguistic information at an early enough age and so runs the risk of obstructing neurological growth so that functional atrophy may occur. In this situation Conrad argues 'we should not ignore the possibility that the "functional atrophy" ...may come to involve structural atrophy as well.' He concludes that Oral schools "virtually are cognitively destroying deaf children." Conrad's case rests on his interpretation of 3 kinds of circumstantial evidence. These are animal studies of auditory deprivation, hemispheric lateralization studies of deaf and hearing subjects, and finally his own data. In the present paper each of these 3 kinds of evidence is reviewed and alternative interpretations are advanced against Conrad's hypothesis of functional atrophy. It is argued that the case that Oralism is responsible for brain atrophy is not proven. It is concluded that the main problem facing deaf children and their teachers is deafness itself, and not any particular educational philosophy and group of methods such as Oralism.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1981

Description of semantic--syntactic relations in an autistic child.

This longitudinal study investigated the language acquisition strategies employed by an autistic child learning sign language. The child's core vocabulary and developing semantic-syntactic relationships were compared with language acquisition in normal children. There were specific deviations in language development noted, in spite of providing the child with appropriate sign language training.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1988

Acquisition of spoken and signed English by hearing-impaired children of hearing-impaired or hearing parents.

This study examines the degree to which hearing-impaired children of hearing-impaired parents (HIP) demonstrate an advantage in their acquisition of signed and spoken English over hearing-impaired children of hearing parents (HP). A subset from the normative sample of the Grammatical Analysis of Elicited Language, 50 HIP children and 50 HP children, were matched in terms of their educational program, hearing level, and age. Results indicate that both groups had comparably poor expressive English language ability at 5 and 6 years of age. However, at age 7 and 8 HIP children demonstrated a significant linguistic advantage in both their spoken and signed English over HP children. Because the production of English by HIP children closely resembled that of orally educated hearing-impaired children of hearing parents, consistent language stimulation throughout the child's early years may be a critical factor in the development of English, regardless of the language or mode of expression.

Age Factors↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Acquiring language through total communication.

Total communication provides an opportunity for very young children to receive training through both visual and auditory systems. Most children with severe hearing loss have auditory discrimination/perceptual problems in addition to a loss of hearing sensitivity. Because sophisticated assessment of auditory perceptual problems is not yet possible in hearing impaired infants, total communication provides immediate and consistent language input regardless of eventual determination of auditory perceptual skills. An illustration of a total communication program is provided.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1990

Rationale and strategies for American Sign Language intervention.

A Midwest school district established a demonstration Total Communication Project. Its goal was for teachers to become consistent in their role modeling of English and American Sign Language (ASL). English was the primary language of the classroom and ASL was used as an intervention tool. There has been little research on the effectiveness of ASL in the classroom. By implementing an ASL intervention program this project is a first step in establishing an environment conducive to investigating the effectiveness of ASL intervention for teaching deaf students. This paper describes: (a) techniques used for identifying classroom situations that call for the use of ASL; (b) discourse situations that influence the use of different language codes in total communication classrooms; and (c) guidelines for code-switching between English and ASL.

Communication Methods, Total↗
PubMed1993

Auditory, visual and auditory-visual identification of emotions by hearing and hearing-impaired adolescents.

This study investigated the identification of non-verbal expressions of emotions by 19 hearing and 24 hearing-impaired adolescents. The participants were presented with video recordings of six emotions: anger, fear, sadness, surprise, happiness and disgust. The emotions were expressed on the same neutral sentence. The expressions were presented in three modes: visual, auditory and combined auditory-visual. The relative contributions of each mode to the identification processes were evaluated for the two research samples. The accuracy in identification of emotions through each of the presentation modes among the hearing-impaired participants was significantly lower than that of the hearing participants. The hearing participants performed better in the auditory-visual mode than in the auditory or the visual modes alone. The hearing-impaired participants performed better in the visual mode than in the auditory mode, and no difference was found between the auditory-visual mode and the visual mode alone. The lower performance of the hearing-impaired group suggested that rehabilitation processes should include training in the area of non-verbal perception. The rank order of the identification of emotions in both research samples was similar. Fear and surprise were the most difficult to identify. Similar order was found for each of the presentation modes as well. Further examination of the stimulus material with different groups of hearing-impaired individuals was recommended.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

The diagnosis of deafness in a child.

Communicating to parents the diagnosis of an irreversible disease or disability in their child is a difficult task for medical practitioners. In order for the parents, as well as the physician, to cope constructively with the severe psychological consequences, disappointment, and grief, it is critical that there be a clear understanding of common reactions to such trauma. Beginning with mixed feelings about the pregnancy common to most parents, through birth, and up to the actual diagnosis, important events take place that are examined with regard to the parents' final coping dynamics. Common reactions include denial, isolation of affect, feelings of impotence, questioning the reasons for deafness, turning to religion, blaming the doctor, guilt, "doctor shopping," depression, and others. Constructive coping by parents can only begin after the irreversibility of the condition is acknowledged and the implications understood and accepted. Beyond this, an understanding of what lies ahead for their child is important. In this regard, habilitation and education, if not properly planned, often represent a greater liability to deaf children and their families than the deafness itself. This is due largely to a pervasive adherence to oralism and mainstreaming at the expense of more appropriate total communication specialized approach. Thus, parent counseling and the use of total communication together offer the best promise for the success of deaf children in reaching their potential.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Evaluating changes in the communication skills of deaf children using vibrotactile stimulation.

Results of a 9-mo longitudinal study designed to evaluate the efficacy of a vibrotactile aid, the SRA-10, with four profoundly deaf preschool children are reported. During the study the subjects were enrolled in 30-min triweekly language therapy sessions, and changes in communication skills in connected discourse (vocalization only, sign language only, and vocalization plus sign language) were measured using a computer-based observation system. Changes in structural and semantic aspects of language were also measured. The four subjects were evaluated during one 16-week phase in which the aid was used (aid-on condition) and another 8 weeks in duration in which the aid was not used (aid-off condition). Communication skills improved in the aid-on condition and decreased in the aid-off condition. The changes were found to be significant for the communication involving the vocalization plus sign language (Total Communication) measure, indicating that the vibrotactile stimulation was positively associated with the communicative act.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMed1981

Correlates of syntactic abilities in hearing-impaired students.

Total scores on the recently developed Screening Test from the Test of Syntactic Abilities for 382 hearing-impaired subjects between eight and 19 years and in various educational programs were found to be significantly related to hearing threshold level, number of multiple handicaps, age, educational setting, method of communication, and hearing aid usage. Multivariate analysis of variance on the effect of age controlled for hearing loss showed no significant increase in scores after eleven years of age, thus lending support to the thesis that the capacity to acquire language may cease to function at about puberty. The results of stepwise multiple regression analyses showed that, when personal variables were first forced to enter the equation, degree of hearing loss, multiple handicaps, and age accounted for 14%, nine %, an four % of the explained variability, respectively. Over and above these contributions, two manipulable variables--educational setting (a surrogate for integration) and method of communication--added significantly a further 12% and three % to the explained variability in syntactic ability.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Linguistic environment of the deaf child: a focus on teachers' use of nonliteral language.

Teachers' communication with deaf and hearing children was compared to identify differences in the teachers' use of two types of nonliteral language: idiomatic language and indirect requests. Two groups of teachers of the deaf were observed, one using oral language only and the other using Total Communication. A third group consisted of teachers of normally hearing children. No differences were found in teachers' use of nonliteral language when talking to hearing children as compared to teachers talking to oral deaf children. Reduced use of idiomatic language occurred, in both the oral and signed portions of communication, only when Total Communication was used. No differences were observed in the oral portion of the three groups' use of indirect requests. However, only 55% of these requests were encoded nonliterally in the signed portion of utterances.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1983

Language sampling in deaf children: a comparison of oral and signed communication modes.

Fourteen deaf children (eight from total communication and six from oral classes) and seven non-hearing-impaired peers were given a number of tasks designed to elicit spontaneous language. These tasks included retelling stories they had previously read aloud (read), retelling stories told to them with accompanying pictures (told), and responding to questions about pictures (pictures). Traditional language sampling indices of verbal output, syntactic structure, and communicativeness were derived, and differences among groups and methods of elicitation were ascertained. Results favored hearing children on all measures. When comparing the two deaf groups, few differences emerge on measures of verbal output and communicativeness. On syntactic measures, the oral group performed significantly better on a number of tasks. These differences were discussed in terms of the impact of communication mode on language instruction for deaf children.

Child↗
PubMed1987

[Total communication in aphasia therapy].

Total Communication Therapy is based on the possibilities which aphasic patients have left to communicate. All aspects of language are trained. The environment stimulates the patient and uses all possible means of communication in order to achieve an optimal level of communication. An evaluation test is being prepared at the moment.

Aphasia↗
PubMed1993

Prelingually deafened children's performance with the nucleus multichannel cochlear implant.

The speech perception abilities of 19 children with onset of deafness before age 3 years was examined after they received the Nucleus multichannel cochlear implant. The children were divided into two groups based on age at onset of deafness: children with congenital deafness (n = 8) and children with onset of deafness after birth but before age 3 (n = 11). There was no statistically significant difference between the scores of the two groups of subjects on 12 of the 13 speech perception tests administered. This finding suggests that children who are born deaf have the potential to derive the same benefit from cochlear implants as do children who have had some exposure to spoken language before the onset of their deafness. Examination of performance in terms of communication mode revealed that prelingually deafened children with implants who used oral communication obtained significantly higher scores on only 2 of the 13 speech perception measures than did children who used total communication. The data suggest that communication mode does not appear to account for large differences in speech perception performance among prelingually deafened children with multichannel cochlear implants.

Acoustic Stimulation↗
PubMed1983

An alternating treatment comparison of oral and total communications training programs with echolalic autistic children.

An alternating treatment comparison was conducted of the relative effectiveness of oral and total communication training models for teaching expressive labeling skills to three echolalic autistic children. The results of this comparison demonstrated that total communication proved to be the most successful approach with each of the subjects. In addition, the replication of these findings both within and across subjects suggest that total communication may be, in general, the most effective of these two training models for teaching basic vocal language skills to echolalic children. A number of hypotheses are presented that may provide a basis for the demonstrated effect.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1988

An evaluation of recent trends in preschool programming for hearing-impaired children.

A longitudinal study was conducted of 139 children with severe and profound hearing losses. The children were between 3 and 5 years of age at the commencement of the 4-year study. The relationship of several background and educational variables with the linguistic, academic, and social development of the children was investigated. Age, hearing loss, and intelligence were related to most of the dependent measures. Relationships involving communication mode (auditory/oral vs. total communication) varied with the measure being considered. The variable of program type (individual vs. group) interacted with the degree of hearing loss and with communication mode. Although early intervention was related to certain dependent measures, no relationships were found that involved direct instruction by parents or integration.

Achievement↗
PubMed1990

Total communication use among elementary teachers of hearing-impaired children.

This study examined the degree to which teachers' signed Manually Coded English messages represented their spoken utterances. Results indicate that educators in early elementary programs can, and do, provide a complete manual representation of their spoken English messages. This is in contrast with earlier research with middle school educators and parents of hearing-impaired children. Findings indicate that MCE proficiency may be influenced both by teacher attitude regarding the importance of signing a complete message and the degree to which program supervisors monitor teacher implementation of clearly specified MCE policies. Findings from this study have implications for programs to train teachers in using MCE and also provide information on the effects of program policy on teacher use of sign language.

Child↗