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PubMed1999

Evidence for involvement of gut-associated denitrifying bacteria in emission of nitrous oxide (N(2)O) by earthworms obtained from garden and forest soils.

Earthworms (Aporrectodea caliginosa, Lumbricus rubellus, and Octolasion lacteum) obtained from nitrous oxide (N(2)O)-emitting garden soils emitted 0.14 to 0.87 nmol of N(2)O h(-1) g (fresh weight)(-1) under in vivo conditions. L. rubellus obtained from N(2)O-emitting forest soil also emitted N(2)O, which confirmed previous observations (G. R. Karsten and H. L. Drake, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63:1878-1882, 1997). In contrast, commercially obtained Lumbricus terrestris did not emit N(2)O; however, such worms emitted N(2)O when they were fed (i.e., preincubated in) garden soils. A. caliginosa, L. rubellus, and O. lacteum substantially increased the rates of N(2)O emission of garden soil columns and microcosms. Extrapolation of the data to in situ conditions indicated that N(2)O emission by earthworms accounted for approximately 33% of the N(2)O emitted by garden soils. In vivo emission of N(2)O by earthworms obtained from both garden and forest soils was greatly stimulated when worms were moistened with sterile solutions of nitrate or nitrite; in contrast, ammonium did not stimulate in vivo emission of N(2)O. In the presence of nitrate, acetylene increased the N(2)O emission rates of earthworms; in contrast, in the presence of nitrite, acetylene had little or no effect on emission of N(2)O. In vivo emission of N(2)O decreased by 80% when earthworms were preincubated in soil supplemented with streptomycin and tetracycline. On a fresh weight basis, the rates of N(2)O emission of dissected earthworm gut sections were substantially higher than the rates of N(2)O emission of dissected worms lacking gut sections, indicating that N(2)O production occurred in the gut rather than on the worm surface. In contrast to living earthworms and gut sections that produced N(2)O under oxic conditions (i.e., in the presence of air), fresh casts (feces) from N(2)O-emitting earthworms produced N(2)O only under anoxic conditions. Collectively, these results indicate that gut-associated denitrifying bacteria are responsible for the in vivo emission of N(2)O by earthworms and contribute to the N(2)O that is emitted from certain terrestrial ecosystems.

Acetylene↗

PubMed2002

[Factors influencing the activity of fibrinolytic enzymes from earthworm, Eeisenia foetida].

OBJECTIVE: To study the factors influencing the activity of fibrinolytic enzymes from earthworm and to obtain the better way to extract fibrinolytic enzymes as well as keep its optimum activity. METHOD: 75% alcohol, 0.9% NaCl and 10% saccharose was used to extract the crude fibrinolytic enzymes from earthworm, the method of urokinase gelose-fibrin plate was used to measure the activity of fibrinolytic enzymes from earthworm. and the method of 3,3'-diaminobezidine tetrahydrochloride colorimetry to was used measure the content of selenium. The method use ts of measuring the content of arsenic was silver diethyldithiocarbamate colorimetry. RESULT: The fibrinolytin of earthworms reared with cattle soils had higher activity than that reared with garbage. The arsenic in the earthworm's body could improve the activity of earthworm's fibrinolytin. However, the selenium had litter influence on it. Among the three methods of extraction, the 75% alcohol one was the most efficient, the 0.9% NaCl was next, and the 10% saccharose was the lowest. The influence of dialysis on the activity of fibrinolytin was less than that of ultrafiltration, when the earthworm's fibrinolytin enzyme was further sublimated. CONCLUSION: The activity of the earthworm's fibrinolytin will be increased earthworm is reared with the fitting baits and when appropriate methods, of extraction and purification are used.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2006

Toxicity of the explosive metabolites hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitroso-1,3,5-triazine (TNX) and hexahydro-1-nitroso-3,5-dinitro-1,3,5-triazine (MNX) to the earthworm Eisenia fetida.

Toxicity of hexahydro-1-nitroso-3,5-dinitro-1,3,5-triazine (MNX) and hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitroso-1,3,5-triazine (TNX) to earthworm was evaluated. Both MNX and TNX had lethal and sublethal effects on earthworms. Exposure to MNX- or TNX-contaminated soil caused a significant concentration-dependent decrease in earthworm survival and growth. The lowest observed lethal concentration (LOLC) for both MNX and TNX was 100 and 200 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight in the sandy loam soil and in the silt loam soil, respectively. No earthworms survived for 14 days in MNX- or TNX-spiked soil at 500 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight. After 7 days exposure, the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) for earthworm growth was 50 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight for TNX and 100 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight for MNX in both soil types. The LC20 and LC50 for MNX in sandy loam soil were 114 and 262 mgkg(-1) and for TNX, they were 114 and 254 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight, respectively. The corresponding values for MNX and TNX in silt loam soil were 234 and 390 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight, respectively, and 200 and 362 mgkg(-1) soil dry weight, respectively. After 35 days exposure, earthworm growth was reduced 8-39% by TNX in sandy loam soil, whereas TNX only inhibited earthworm growth 5-18% at the same concentration range in silt loam soil. LC20 and LC50 for TNX were slightly lower than for MNX; this indicates that TNX was more toxic than MNX. No significant morphological or developmental abnormalities were observed in earthworms surviving exposure.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Effects of heavy metals on earthworms along contamination gradients in organic rich soils.

Earthworm communities and metal (bio)availability to earthworms along contamination gradients was studied in order to support chemical analyses in risk assessment of metal contaminated soils. Earthworms were sampled in three metal contaminated areas with different habitat and soil properties in Finland. Earthworm and soil samples were collected at three distances (1, 2, and 4 km) from the emission sources. Earthworms were identified as to species and analyzed for heavy metals. Total soil metal concentrations were analyzed using an ultrasound-assisted extraction method and bioavailable metal fraction was estimated by acetic acid extraction. In two of the three areas studied, heavy metal concentrations close to the emission sources were high enough to have harmful effects on earthworms and their environments. In general, diversity, total numbers, and biomass of earthworms increased with increasing distance from the emission sources. When individuals were available for analyses close to the emission source, positive correlations between metal concentrations in the earthworms and those in the soils were observed.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Effects of earthworm activity on fertility and heavy metal bioavailability in sewage sludge.

The potential for using earthworms (Eisenia fetida) to improve fertility and reduce copper and cadmium availability in sewage sludge was tested by laboratory incubation experiments. Results comparing sewage sludge with and without earthworm treatment showed that earthworm activity decreased the contents of organic matter, total nitrogen, but increased the contents of available nitrogen and phosphorus and had no significant effect on the contents of total phosphorus, total potassium and available potassium. After incubation of the sewage sludge with earthworms for 60 days, the contents of Cu and Cd in the earthworms increased with the increase of additional Cu up to 250 mg kg(-1) and Cd up to 10 mg kg(-1). Bioconcentration factors (BCF) were higher than 1 only for Cd when the addition rate was lower than 5 mg kg(-1), which indicates that the earthworms can only accumulate Cd when the concentration of Cd is low in sewage sludge. Bioavailability of Cd and Cu was evaluated by applying sewage sludge with and without earthworm treatment to soil and then growing cabbage plants. The results showed that earthworm treatment increased the biomass of cabbage and decreased the bioaccumulation of Cd and Cu in the cabbage plants.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Interactions of earthworms with Atrazine-degrading bacteria in an agricultural soil.

In the last 10 years, accelerated mineralization of Atrazine (2-chloro-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-s-triazine) has been evidenced in agricultural soils repeatedly treated with this herbicide. Here, we report on the interaction between earthworms, considered as soil engineers, and the Atrazine-degrading community. The impact of earthworm macrofauna on Atrazine mineralization was assessed in representative soil microsites of earthworm activities (gut contents, casts, burrow linings). Soil with or without earthworms, namely the anecic species Lumbricus terrestris and the endogenic species Aporrectodea caliginosa, was either inoculated or not inoculated with Pseudomonas sp. ADP, an Atrazine-degrading strain, and was either treated or not treated with Atrazine. The structure of the bacterial community, the Atrazine-degrading activity and the abundance of atzA, B and C sequences in soil microsites were investigated. Atrazine mineralization was found to be reduced in representative soil microsites of earthworm activities. Earthworms significantly affected the structure of soil bacterial communities. They also reduced the size of the inoculated population of Pseudomonas sp. ADP, thereby contributing to the diminution of the Atrazine-degrading genetic potential in representative soil microsites of earthworm activities. This study illustrates the regulation produced by the earthworms on functional bacterial communities involved in the fate of organic pollutants in soils.

Amidohydrolases↗

PubMed2006

Earthworms as vectors of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in soil and vermicomposts.

Survival and movement of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in both soil and vermicompost is of concern with regards to human health. Whilst it is accepted that E. coli O157:H7 can persist for considerable periods in soils, it is not expected to survive thermophilic composting processes. However, the natural behavior of earthworms is increasingly utilized for composting (vermicomposting), and the extent to which earthworms promote the survival and dispersal of the bacterium within such systems is unknown. The faecal material produced by earthworms provides a ready supply of labile organic substrates to surrounding microbes within soil and compost, thus promoting microbial activity. Earthworms can also cause significant movement of organisms through the channels they form. Survival and dispersal of E. coli O157:H7 were monitored in contaminated soil and farmyard manure subjected to earthworm digestion over 21 days. Our findings lead to the conclusion that anecic earthworms such as Lumbricus terrestris may significantly aid vertical movement of E. coli O157 in soil, whereas epigeic earthworms such as Dendrobaena veneta significantly aid lateral movement within compost. Although the presence of earthworms in soil and compost may aid proliferation of E. coli O157 in early stages of contamination, long-term persistence of the pathogen appears to be unaffected.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Earthworms as paratenic hosts of toxoplasmosis in eastern barred bandicoots in Tasmania.

An experimental feeding study was designed to assess the role of earthworms in the transmission of Toxoplasma gondii infection to eastern barred bandicoots (Perameles gunnii). Six animals with no agglutinating antibodies to T. gondii were fed artificially cultured earthworms that had been maintained in autoclaved nutrient-enriched soil. Two animals were given earthworms that had been maintained in soil contaminated with T. gondii oocysts (P89/VEG strain); two animals were fed on earthworms, which initially had been exposed to soil containing T. gondii oocysts then transferred through three changes of sterile soil; two control bandicoots were fed earthworms maintained in sterile soil. Both bandicoots fed earthworms maintained in T. gondii contaminated soil died 11 and 14 days after feeding. The necropsy findings were consistent with acute toxoplasmosis. Bandicoots fed earthworms exposed to oocysts but then transferred through changes of sterilized soil remained healthy as did control animals. All surviving animals remained seronegative over the 6 wk observation period after feeding. These findings confirm that earthworms, a major component of the natural diet of P. gunnii, can transmit T. gondii infection. It appears that oocysts present in the alimentary tracts of the worms, rather than infective stages of T. gondii in worm somatic tissues, are responsible for these infections.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

[Effect of earthworm inoculation on soil carbon and nitrogen dynamics and on crop yield with application of corn residues].

This study was carried out in the Experimental Station of Nanjing Agricultural University, which is in a subtropical monsoon region characterized by a warm-wet spring and a hot-dry summer. The annual average temperature, precipitation and evaporation are 15.6 degrees C, 1010 mm and 1560 mm, respectively. In 1999, the experimental plots (2.8 m x 1.0 m x 0.6 m) were established by concrete frame. Soil in the plots was orthic aquisols collected from Rugao County, Jiangsu Province. Crop rotation was upland rice and winter wheat. At the beginning of the first crop (rice) season, earthworms (Pheretima sp.) were inoculated at a density of 10.m-2 and 20.m-2, respectively, in the plots with an application of corn residues at the rate of 1500 g.m-2(750 g.m-2 in the following seasons). The responses of soil carbon and nitrogen and crop yield to earthworm activity were investigated from 1999 to 2001. The results showed that earthworms had no significant influences on total soil carbon and nitrogen content, which implied that there was no depletion of soil carbon and nitrogen pools in the presence of earthworms. The maintenance of soil carbon might be explained by low assimilation efficiency of organic matter by earthworms, and by the compensation of carbon returning from plant production enhancement. Soil mineral nitrogen, soil microbial biomass carbon and microbial biomass nitrogen were increased, and nitrogen mineralization was strengthened by earthworm activities, which was more obvious at jointing/booting and heading stages. In comparison with no-worm treatments, the yield of rice wheat increased by 9.3% and 5.1%, respectively, in the treatments inoculated with earthworms. It was concluded that earthworm was very important in promoting nitrogen recycling of crop residues and plant productivity, and in keeping the balance of soil carbon pool as well.

Agriculture↗

PubMed1981

Organochlorine insecticide residues in soil and earthworms in the Delhi area, India, August--October, 1974.

DDT residues in soil and earthworms from 50 sites in Delhi were monitored. DDT was detected in all but two samples each of soil and earthworms. Among DDT residues, p,p'-DDE was most common and was found in 48 samples each of soil and earthworms; p,p'-DDT was detected in only 43 soil samples and 46 earthworm samples. p,p'-TDE and o,p'-DDT were also present in smaller concentrations in 29 and 15 soil samples and in 43 and 25 earthworm samples, respectively. Maximum total DDT concentration of 2.6 ppm was detected in the soil from Durga Nagar in the vicinity of a DDT factory. The highest concentration of 37.7 ppm total DDT in earthworms was also obtained from the same site. The maximum concentration factor found in the earthworms was 551. The total DDT concentration in the earthworms and soil showed significant correlation.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Uptake of 134Cs from a sandy soil by two earthworm species: the effects of temperature.

The uptake of 134Cs by the earthworm species Lumbricus rubellus and Eisenia andrei was studied in potted soils at different temperatures. Concentration factors were between 0.23 and 0.37 for E. andrei, and between 0.30 and 0.41 for L. rubellus. Biological half-lives ranged from 3 to 11 days for E. andrei and from 3 to 9 days for L. rubellus. The 134Cs uptake increased with temperature in both species. A 10 degrees C rise in temperature resulted in a 1.6-fold increase in 134Cs concentration in E. andrei and a 2.1-fold increase in L. rubellus. Maximum difference between 134Cs concentrations of the two species was 2.4. The increase in internal 134Cs concentration with increasing temperature could be mainly explained by earthworm-related factors such as increased metabolism or feeding rate since 134Cs concentrations in solution did not increase with temperature in pots without earthworms. 134Cs concentrations in soil solution from pots with earthworms compared to those in pots without earthworms were increased. Other soil solution characteristics, such as potassium, calcium concentration and conductivity, were also affected by adding earthworms. The 134Cs accumulation in earthworms was calculated as a function of the 134Cs concentration in the soil solution over time. The results indicate, at least in the case of L. rubellus, that since the accumulation pattern could not be explained by concentrations in soil solution, uptake through food must contribute considerably to the total uptake.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Modelling and monitoring organochlorine and heavy metal accumulation in soils, earthworms, and shrews in Rhine-delta floodplains.

In the Rhine-delta, accumulation of microcontaminants in floodplain foodwebs has received little attention in comparison with aquatic communities. To investigate organochlorine and metal concentrations in a terrestrial foodchain, samples of soil, earthworms (Lumbricus rubellus), and shrew (Crocidura russula, Sorex araneus) livers and kidneys were taken from two moderately to heavily polluted floodplains. Chlorobiphenyl residues in earthworm fat were 0.10 to 3.5 times the concentrations in soil organic matter, whereas ratios for other organochlorines varied between 0.87 and 8.8. These ratios are one order of magnitude lower than expected from laboratory experiments with earthworms, and laboratory and field studies on aquatic invertebrates. Bioconcentration ratios for heavy metals are in accordance with literature values for other locations, confirming the high potential for cadmium accumulation in Lumbricidae. Concentrations of organochlorines in shrew liver lipids were 1.0 to 13 times the residues in earthworm fat. These values are higher than lipid-corrected biomagnification ratios for laboratory rodents, but equal to those measured for benthivorous birds in the Rhine-delta. On a dry weight basis, kidney-earthworm ratios for cadmium were about one order of magnitude lower than previously reported values for insectivores. Soil concentrations of many compounds in both floodplains did not meet Dutch quality standards. Yet, hexachlorobenzene, chlorobiphenyl 153 (PCB153), gamma-hexachlorocyclohexane, sigma DDT, and dieldrin residues in earthworms and shrews did not exceed diet levels expected to be safe for endothermic species. An exception was noted for cadmium in worms and shrew kidneys. Heavy metal pollution in soil was close to levels that are critical to earthworms in laboratory studies. Cadmium concentrations in shrew kidneys were below levels suggested to be safe for Sorex araneus, but above those that were critical to the rat.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

gamma-Glutamyl conjugation of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) in the earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris).

The conversion of 5-hydroxytryptamine to several potential metabolites was examined in the annelid earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris). 5-hydroxytryptamine and some related amines were found to be present in several tissues of the earthworm. Injection of 5-hydroxytryptamine into the body cavity of the earthworm resulted in the production of a gamma-glutamyl conjugate of 5-hydroxytryptamine. Incubations of the anterior nerve cord of the earthworm resulted in the accumulation of considerable amounts of 5-hydroxytryptamine and gamma-glutamyl 5-hydroxytryptamine in the incubation medium. The earthworm did not produce any N-acetyl 5-hydroxytryptamine and only very little 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Experiments involving the injection of radiolabeled 5-hydroxytryptamine or coinjection of radiolabeled glutamic acid with unlabeled 5-hydroxytryptamine into the earthworm resulted in the production of radiolabeled gamma-glutamyl 5-hydroxytryptamine. This work demonstrates that the enzymatic conversion of 5-HT in the earthworm is markedly different from that of vertebrates and insects.

Acetyltransferases↗

PubMed2005

Bioaccumulation and elimination of avermectin B1a in the earthworms (Eisenia fetida).

The acute toxicity, bioaccumulation, and elimination of avermectin B1a (AVM B1a) in earthworm (Eisenia fetida) were investigated in different exposure systems. The LC50 of AVM B1a on earthworms were 24.1 mg/kg and 17.1 mg/kg, respectively, for 7 and 14 days in artificial soil. The LC50 tested by the filter paper for 2 days was 4.63 microg/cm2. The earthworms were cultivated in artificial soil containing 0.6 mg/kg and 3.0 mg/kg AVM B1a, respectively for bioaccumulation experiments. The AVM B1a residues in earthworms were determined with HPLC-fluorescence method. The results showed that AVM B1a was taken up from the concentrated artificial soil by the earthworms and the steady-state levels were reached after 9-18 days of exposure. On the 18th day, the final concentrations of AVM B1a in the earthworms treated with two different dosages were 107 ng/g and 165 ng/g, respectively; there were not significantly accumulation. About 80.0% and 94.8% of the accumulated AVM B1a were eliminated respectively in two groups within 1 day after they were exposed to AVM B1a-free soil, but a trace amount of AVM B1a was found for a relative long time in earthworms.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

A new ultrasound protocol for extrusion of coelomocyte cells from the earthworm Eisenia fetida.

There is mounting evidence that earthworms could be used as a sentinel species for soil ecotoxicity evaluation. In this aspect, phagocytosis by coelomocytes was shown to be a sensitive biomarker of exposure to xenobiotics. In this paper, we introduce a simple method for ultrasound extrusion of earthworm coelomocytes that generates a high cell yield, does not interfere with phagocytic competence, and requires a minimum of manipulations. Coelomocytes were extruded from the earthworm Eisenia fetida using this new ultrasound method and compared with ethanol and electrical extrusion. The ultrasonic extrusion showed the highest cell recovery with 3.17 +/ -0.8 x 10(6) cells per earthworm compared with 2.22 +/- 0.8 x 10(6) cells per earthworm for electrical extrusion and 1.57 +/- 0.07 x 10(6) cells per earthworm for ethanol extrusion. No significant differences in the cell viability were observed using propidium iodide and flow cytometry with viability for extrusion with ethanol of 63.8 +/- 12.7%, electrical 76.8 +/- 7.5%, and ultrasound 68.2 +/- 7.8%. To compare the potential effect of extrusion on cell quality, the cells extruded using the three methods were subjected to an 18-h in vitro exposure to methylmercury chloride (MeHgCl; CH3HgCl) with concentrations ranging from 10(-9) to 10(-4)M. The half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) for inhibition of phagocytosis occurred between 10(-7) and 10(-6)M. We found no significant differences among the extrusion methods for the phagocytic potential of the coelomocytes. This method does not harm the worms and can certainly improve collection of coelomocytes from earthworms and therefore contribute to the development of bioassays using invertebrates.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Effect of solar UV radiation on earthworm (Metaphire posthuma).

Human health risks like damage to the eyes, immune system, and skin are known to be associated with increasing ultraviolet radiation (UVR) in the environment. In this study, we evaluated the phototoxic effects of UVR in sunlight and its possible mechanism of action by using earthworm as an alternative model because earthworm skin contains several biomolecules (tetraene and triene sterol) similar to human beings. We studied the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), photooxidation of lipids, and histopathological changes in earthworm integument. It was observed that UVR-exposed earthworm skin homogenate produced a significant amount of singlet oxygen ((1)O(2)), superoxide anion (O(2)(*)(-)), hydroxyl radicals ((*)OH), and photooxidation of lipids. The production of ROS and lipid peroxidation product was found dependent on the dose of solar UVR in earthworm integument. Histological anomalies such as thickening, vacuolation, and hypertrophy of epidermal cells were observed when the animals were exposed for 1 to 2h, while a higher exposure period (3h) caused degeneration of circular and longitudinal muscles. Continuous sunlight exposure for more than 3h was found lethal to worms. These observations suggested that the current level of UVR in sunlight may produce significant phototoxic effects in the earthworms probably via the generation of ROS (photodynamic action). Possible increases in UVR in view of ozone depletion may be more detrimental to the biomolecules in the worm's skin. The earthworm thus turned out as a simple, sensitive, and cost-effective test organism for the assessment of the hazardous potential of solar radiation and also for planning safety measures for human beings.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Assessing soil ecotoxicity of methyl tert-butyl ether using earthworm bioassay; closed soil microcosm test for volatile organic compounds.

An earthworm bioassay was conducted to assess ecotoxicity in methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)-amended soils. Ecotoxicity of MTBE to earthworms was evaluated by a paper contact method, natural field soil test, and an OECD artificial soil test. All tests were conducted in closed systems to prevent volatilization of MTBE out of test units. Test earthworm species were Perionyx excavatus and Eisenia andrei. Mortality and abnormal morphology of earthworms exposed to different concentrations of MTBE were examined. MTBE was toxic to both earthworm species and the severity of response increased with increasing MTBE concentrations. Perionyx excavatus was more sensitive to MTBE than Eisenia andrei in filter papers and two different types of soils. MTBE toxicity was more severe in OECD artificial soils than in field soils, possibly due to the burrowing behavior of earthworms into artificial soils. The present study demonstrated that ecotoxicity of volatile organic compounds such as MTBE can be assessed using an earthworm bioassay in closed soil microcosm with short-term exposure duration.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed2005

Heavy metal concentrations in soil and earthworms in a floodplain grassland.

We determined accumulated heavy metal concentrations (Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn) of earthworms in moderately contaminated floodplain soils. Both soil and mature earthworms were sampled before and after flooding and earthworm species were identified to understand species specific differences in bioconcentration. Accumulated metal concentrations in floodplain earthworms differed before and after flooding. Differences in uptake and elimination mechanisms, in food choice and living habitat of the different earthworm species and changes in speciation of the heavy metals are possible causes for this observation. Regression equations taken from literature, that relate metal accumulation by earthworms in floodplains as a function of metal concentration in soil, performed well when all species specific data were combined in an average accumulation, but did not address differences in accumulation between earthworm species.

Animals↗