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PubMed1975

Fatty acid composition of the plasma lipids in Greenland Eskimos.

Gas-liquid chromatography analyses have been carried out to investigate the composition of esterified fatty acids in the plasma lipids in 130 Greenland Eskimos, compared with those of 32 Greenland Eskimos living in Denmark and of 31 Caucasian Danes in Denmark. While the Eskimos living in Denmark did not differ substantially from other persons living in Denmark and, from what is found in other studies in Western communities, the Greenland Eskimos showed a completely different pattern. They demonstrated a much higher proportion of palmitic, palmitoleic, and timnodonic acids, while they had a markedly lower concentration of linoleic acid. The total concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids was lower in Greenland Eskimos than in the other groups. These findings are discussed in the light of the generally accepted opinion of the beneficial effect on plasma lipid levels and on the morbidity of coronary atherosclerosis of a high dietary intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids. As plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels in Greenland Eskimos in a previous study were found markedly lower than those found in Western populations, and as coronary atherosclerosis seems to occur far less commonly among Eskimos in Greenland than among peoples in industrialized countries, it was found difficult to combine these observations with the results from the present study. If dietary differences are the main reason for the differences in plasma lipid concentrations, the results from the present study point more toward qualitative than toward quantitative differences in respect of fatty acid composition of the food.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Relationships between Eskimos, Amerindians, and Aleuts: old data, new perspectives.

Eskimos and Aleuts have long shown uncertain anthropological relationships to each other and to Amerindians. Various researchers, using different samples, data, and methods, have derived diverse relationships among them. Despite supervising the collection of anthropometric data during various expeditions around the turn of the century, Franz Boas did not use these data to formulate or support his Eskimo wedge theory. The perception of Eskimo biological uniqueness has persisted (Greenberg et al. 1986; Laughlin et al. 1979; Laughlin and Harper 1988), although it has been challenged by Szathmary and Ossenberg (1978), Szathmary (1979), and Ossenberg (1992). Genetic analyses, whether using nuclear or mitochondrial DNA, have not revealed consistent relationships for various reasons. A widely known multidisciplinary study (Greenberg et al. 1986) has failed to show agreement among data sets. As a result, Boas's theory has not been adequately tested to this day. A modern analysis of anthropometric data collected under Boas casts doubt on an Eskimo wedge and the assumed close relationship between language and biology. Compared with other north Pacific populations, the Siberian, Labrador, and MacKenzie Delta Eskimo samples are anthropometrically closest to northeast Siberians, whereas the Aleuts are closest to some Northwest Coast Amerindians. An analysis with additional data collected by Hrdlicka (1930) reflects ethnohistorical relationships and a geographic pattern of population affinities: The Eskimos of southwestern Alaska are similar to Aleuts and selected Amerindian tribes on the Northwest Coast. Despite linguistic similarities, Eskimo and Aleut populations are diverse, with some being more similar to populations from opposite sides of the north Pacific.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

The prevalence of glaucoma among Eskimos of northwest Alaska.

Data collected during a population-based general ophthalmic prevalence survey among Alaska's northwestern Eskimos were analyzed to determine the prevalence of glaucoma. Of the 1686 Eskimos examined, 11 cases (0.65%) of glaucoma were found, including ten cases of angle closure glaucoma (both chronic and acute forms) and a single case of open angle glaucoma. This indicates the rarity of open angle glaucoma in Eskimo eyes and a reversal of the typical pattern found in the general US population. Narrow angle glaucoma occurred at a rate of 2.65% in Eskimos older than 40 years of age, the prevalence increasing with age in both sexes. Women were afflicted almost four times as often as men, and the sex difference persisted across all age groups. Anterior chamber angles appeared clinically narrower with age and among women. Seventeen percent of all Eskimos older than 50 years had occludable angles by gonioscopy. These findings target older Eskimo women as a group particularly at risk for angle closure glaucoma.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

The prostacyclin/thromboxane balance is favourably shifted in Greenland Eskimos.

The rare incidence of cardiovascular disease in Eskimos has been ascribed to their diet rich in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) and hence a possible formation of trienoic prostanoids. In this study we compare endogenous formation of prostacyclin (PGI), which is formed by the endothelial cell, and thromboxane (TXA), which is formed by platelets in 20 Eskimos and 20 age and sex matched Danish controls by measurement of the main urinary metabolites. Considerable formation of bioactive PGI3 from dietary EPA was shown in Eskimos, which was barely detectable in the controls. Furthermore synthesis of PGI2 was significantly higher in Eskimos in spite of a markedly lower arachidonate content in membrane lipids. In contrast formation of TXA2,3 was lower in Eskimos as compared to the Danish controls. We conclude, that the balance between PGI and TXA, which may regulate the interaction of platelet and vessel wall, is favourably shifted in Greenland Eskimos to an antithrombotic state.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Serum calcium in Greenland Eskimos.

Serum calcium i Greenland Eskimos living in Greenland is significantly lower than in Greenland Eskimos and Danes living in Denmark (p less than 0.001). Danes living in Greenland show intermediate values. High vitamin D levels have been found in Eskimos (Canada). Thus vitamin D deficiency is probably not the cause of the low serum calcium levels. A low dietary intake of calcium is a more likely explanation, consistent with the finding of high serum calcium in Greenland Eskimos living in Denmark, especially in adolescents with high consumption of dairy products. The low serum calcium in Greenland Eskimos may explain the early onset of osteoporosis, which is a common trait in Eskimos from all over the Arctic.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Hypoacusis among the Polar Eskimos of northwest Greenland.

Audiological tests were conducted on 188 Polar Eskimos (75 males and 43 females) in small, remote, nonindustrialized settlements of Northwest Greenland. Most males of this small Eskimo tribe hunt regularly for food using rifles and shotguns. The means of the pure tone hearing thresholds indicated that 77% of the males in the population sample had a hearing loss (greater than 25 dB HL) in the high frequency range (above 2,000 Hz), in one or both ears. Also, 73% of the males had bilateral hearing losses (greater than 25 dB HL), and 73% had hearing thresholds greater than or equal to dB in one or both ears. A high frequency hearing loss was found in 46% of the males of the younger age groups (less than or equal to 40 years), mainly in the 3,000 to 8,000 Hz range, with the mean loss gradually extending to 2,000 and 1,000 Hz, and increasing in severity with age. The mean pure tone thresholds of 6- to 60-year-old female Polar Eskimos (who do not hunt with firearms) were generally within normal limits over the entire audiometric frequency range for the younger groups, and increased with age to the mild hearing loss range. Among the females, 35% had a hearing loss (less than 25dB HL) in the high frequency range (above 2,000 Hz) in one or both ears, and 21% had thresholds of greater than or equal to 50 dB in one or both ears. Conductive hearing losses in the low frequency range were not widespread among the males or females of this survey. The findings of this study suggest: (1) The high incidence of age-related hearing loss among the Polar Eskimo males is the result of frequent exposure to high intensity, impulse firearm noise, which is the major source of noise for this population, in an otherwise "noise-free" environment. (2) The primary noise-induced permanent threshold shift among Polar Eskimo hunters occurs in the age range of 10-40 years, and increases slowly thereafter, mainly as a result of continual noise exposure and presbyacusis. It is recommended that ear protectors and a comprehensive hearing conservation/rehabilitation program be provided for the Polar Eskimo population at once in order to prevent further hearing impairment and to rehabilitate those persons presently suffering from hearing loss.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Adverse reactions to drugs and metabolic problems perceived in Northern Canadian Indians and Eskimos.

Eskimos and to a slightly lesser degree Northern Indians are extremely rapid acetylators as tested with isoniazid. They also tend to clear phenytoin rapidly as proven in Greenland Eskimos and supported by clinical observations in Canadian Eskimos. Most "silent gene" cholinesterase cases found in Canada came from the tiny minorities of Northern Indians and Eskimos and an even higher prevalence was found in an isolate of South Western Alaskan Eskimos. We found alcohol metabolism significantly slower in Northern Indians and Eskimos than Caucasians, which is at variance with findings in other Amerindian groups and Asiatic Mongoloids reflecting perhaps quite different physical and nutritional environments over long periods of time. Pecularities of sugar metabolism found in Natives of the Canadian Arctic and Sub-Arctic may also be best explained by the relative deficiency of carbohydrates in their traditional diet.

Adaptation, Biological↗

PubMed1998

Skeletal evidence of health and disease in pre-contact Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts.

There have been relatively few paleopathological studies of arctic populations to date, compared to other regions of North America. Studies aimed at elucidating patterns of health and disease in arctic peoples prior to contact and assessing inter- and intraregional differences in disease patterns have been particularly few. In the present study, five pre-contact skeletal samples (N = 193), representing 4 Eskimo populations from northern coastal Alaska and 1 Aleut population from the eastern Aleutian Islands, were examined macroscopically for the following indicators of health status: cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, trauma, infection, dental caries, abscesses, antemortem tooth loss, periodontal disease, and dental attrition. In addition, archeological and epidemiological data were used to help reconstruct the health of these populations. The goals of the analysis were 2-fold: 1) to assess the pre-contact health of North Alaskan Eskimos and Aleuts in order to provide a baseline comparison for the post-contact health of these groups, and 2) to determine if any differences in disease patterns exist between the Eskimos and Aleuts that might be related to differences in their physical environment, subsistence patterns, and cultural practices. The analysis revealed that both groups suffered from a variety of health problems prior to contact, including iron deficiency anemia, trauma, infection, and various forms of dental pathology. Statistical comparisons of the 2 groups revealed that Eskimos and Aleuts had different patterns of health and disease prior to contact. Most notably, the Aleuts had a significantly higher frequency of cranial trauma and infracranial infection than the Eskimos, while the latter had a significantly higher frequency of enamel hypoplasia. An examination of the physical and cultural environment of the 2 groups reveals several possible explanations for these differences, including warfare, subsistence pursuits, and housing practices. The documentation of these differences indicates that variability in pre-contact disease patterns can be identified between hunter-gatherer populations living in similar environments and exhibiting similar general lifestyles.

Alaska↗

PubMed1981

Reindeer Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos: studies on blood groups, serum proteins, and red cell enzymes with regard to genetic heterogeneity.

Phenotype and allelic frequencies for ABO, MNSs, P, Rh, Kell, Duffy, and Diego blood groups, as well as for transferrins (Tf), haptoglobins (Hp), phosphoglucomutase 1 (PGM1), adenylate kinase (AK), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (PGD), and acid phosphatase (AcP) are described in 9-10 adjoining populations of Reindeer Chukchi. Additionally, one of three presently existing territorial subgroups of Siberian Eskimos was studied. The total sample size ranges from 931 to 1,066 in Chukchi, and from 99 to 102 in Eskimos, depending on the genetic system studied. Substantially reduced samples for Kidd and ABO secretion were investigated solely in the Reindeer Chukchi. Significant heterogeneity of allelic frequencies has been observed among Chukchi populations (X(2)124 = 378.47, P less than 0.001). Summed genetic heterogeneity between Reindeer Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos was also found to be highly significant (X(2)14 = 186.54, P less than 0.001). Both groups can be readily discriminated with only four outliers: Ns, P1, R1, and pa. Random genetic drift is suggested to be responsible for a large proportion of heterogeneity of allelic frequencies at the MNSs, P, and Rh blood-group system sites both among the Chukchi and Eskimos. Conversely, stabilizing selection is assumed as the principal agent maintaining homogeneous allelic frequencies at the AcP locus within the Chukchi subdivisions, whereas disruptive selection may be considered as a major factor leading to different Pa frequencies between Chukchi and Eskimos.

Arctic Regions↗

PubMed1982

Gm and Km immunoglobulin allotypes in Reindeer Chukchi and Siberian Eskimos.

Blood samples from 403 Reindeer Chukchi of inland Chukotka, and 100 samples from Chaplin Eskimos of the Chukot Peninsula were tested for G 1 m (z,a,x,f), G2m (n), G3m (g,b0,b1,b3,b5,s,t), and Km (1) allotypic determinants. An apparent affinity between the Chukchi and the Eskimos could be inferred from similar frequencies of the two common haplotypes, Gmza;g and Gmza;bst, and from very similar frequencies of the Km1 allele. However, none of the Eskimos had Gmzax;g, though it occurred at a low or moderate frequency in the five Chukchi populations studied. It is assumed that Chukchi can be distinguished from adjoining Eskimos by the same G1m (x) outlier, that has been considered as a taxonomic marker useful in differentiating between Eskimos and American Indians. Comparison of North Asian and North American populations with respect to the array and frequencies of Gm haplotypes and the Km1 allele, supports the hypothesis of a nonrandom distribution of the Gmza;bst and Km1 on both sides of the Bering Strait.

Alleles↗

PubMed1997

Functional characterisation of Eskimo dog hemoglobin: II. The interplay of HCO(3)- and Cl-.

Hemoglobin (Hb) from the Eskimo dog (belonging to Canis lupus familiaris) showed similar Bohr effect (delta log P50/delta pH) to human HbA in the presence of 100 mmol l-1 NaCl at 20 degrees C. The presence of 7% carbon dioxide in the desalted condition caused a positive (reversed) Bohr effect in the pH range 7.1-7.5 on Eskimo dog Hb, whereas in human HbA there was no Bohr effect within this pH range. A positive Bohr effect on Eskimo dog Hb in this condition was also observed at 37 degrees C. This could indicate differences in the pK values of the amino terminal residues of the two hemoglobins, with possible pH-dependent binding of both bicarbonate (HCO(3)-) and carbamate. Analysis of the effect of CO2 on oxygen affinity of Eskimo dog Hb in the pH range 6.7-7.6 in the presence of chloride and/or 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) support this theory. Our results indicate a competition between HCO(3)- and Cl- in affecting oxygen binding. Thermodynamic analysis reveals that bicarbonate binding lowers the apparent heat of oxygenation in Eskimo dog Hb nearly as much as chloride does in the presence of 2,3-DPG at physiological pH. This safeguards an effective oxygen unloading at lowered red blood cell concentrations of chloride. Moreover, we show that the oxygen affinity at high O2 saturation is less dependent on temperature in the presence than in the absence of CO2-.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

The beta(3)-adrenergic receptor TRP64ARG polymorphism and obesity in Alaskan Eskimos.

OBJECTIVE: A polymorphism in the beta 3-adrenergic receptor (beta 3-AR) has been described and consists of an amino acid substitution at position 64 where tryptophan is replaced by arginine (Arg allele). This polymorphism appears to be a modest contributor to obesity and non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), and may be dependent on gender, gene dosage, ethnic background and environmental factors. We have investigated whether the Trp64Arg polymorphism of the beta 3-AR was associated with body mass index (BMI), blood pressure or the presence of NIDDM in Alaskan Eskimos. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and fifty four Alaskan Eskimos from two distinct villages (Inupiaq and Yupik). MEASUREMENTS: beta 3-AR genotypes were determined by polymerase chain reaction followed by enzymatic digestion. RESULTS: The frequency of the Arg allele in Alaskan Eskimos was 0.38 and represents the highest Arg allele frequency in any population reported to date. 13.8% of the population were homozygous for the Arg allele, 47.6% heterozygous, and 38.6% lacked the Arg allele. However, the Arg allele was not associated with BMI, blood pressure or the presence of NIDDM in Alaskan Eskimos. CONCLUSION: These data do not support a significant role for the beta-AR Arg allele as a marker for obesity (as measured by BMI) or the presence of NIDDM in Alaskan Eskimos. It is possible that other phenotypic variables, not yet available for analysis in this population, may be associated with the presence of the Arg allele

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Body fat distribution in Alaskan Eskimos of the Bering Straits region: the Alaskan Siberia Project.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the body fat content and distribution of adult Alaska Natives of the Bering Straits Region. DESIGN: Cross-sectional screening in the spring of 1994. SUBJECTS: 454 non-pregnant native residents from four rural Alaskan villages. MEASUREMENTS: Height, weight, waist, hip and thigh circumference, bioelectrical impedance, sagittal abdominal diameter, and triceps, biceps, suprailiac, subscapular and thigh skinfolds. RESULTS: Mean height, weight and subscapular-to-triceps ratio were higher in men than women. The women had larger waist, hip and thigh circumferences, higher body fatness, as well as larger skinfolds than the men. There were no demonstrable differences between men and women in measures of body fat distribution. The proportions of women and men with high waist-to-hip ratio (>/=0.8 for women, >/=0.9 for men) for low (<25 kg/m2), medium (25-30 kg/m2) and high (>30 kg/m2) body mass index (BMI) groups were compared with a Canadian study of all races. 1 In the lowest BMI subgroup (<25 kg/m2) a much higher proportion of Eskimo women exhibited a high waist-to-hip ratio (91%) than Eskimo men (42%) or Canadian women (29%) or men (51%). In the highest BMI subgroup (>30 kg/m2) Eskimo women were similar in proportion of high waist-to-hip ratio (99%) compared to Eskimo men (100%), but still demonstrated a much greater proportion of subjects with high waist-to-hip ratio than either Canadian men (90%) or women (76%). CONCLUSIONS: The large abdominal fat depots found in Eskimo women were similar to men, and may indicate that future increases in diabetes mellitus and other metabolic alterations can be anticipated. International Journal of Obesity (2000) 24, 171-179

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1981

Differences in single dose phenytoin kinetics between Greenland Eskimos and Danes.

Phenytoin (PHT) disposition was studied in Greenland Eskimos and in Caucasians (Danes) in order to reveal possible ethnic differences in the pharmacokinetics. PHT was administered i.v. as a single, subsaturation does to healthy adult volunteers and determined in plasma by thin-layer chromatography. Based on the time/concentration curves obtained, the half-life, volume of distribution, the area under the curve, and the total body clearance were calculated. The protein binding was measured by ultrafiltration. Three groups were studied: Group 1 were Eskimos living in East Greenland, group 2 were Eskimos living in Denmark, and group 3 were comparable Caucasians, as a reference group. The total body clearance of PHT per kg body weight was almost twice as high in Eskimos, irrespective of place of living or sex, compared with the Danish group. The volume of distribution was larger in the Eskimo group, but the protein binding did not differ. The reason for the differences in clearance and volume of distribution between the two ethnic groups is not clear, but the results emphasize that ethnic differences in pharmacokinetics can be of significance. The total body clearance values for PHT in Caucasians found in the present study agreed with results from other European investigations that used the same dose, but different analytical assays.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Effects of a new fluid fish oil concentrate, ESKIMO-3, on triglycerides, cholesterol, fibrinogen and blood pressure.

Eskimos have a very low incidence of cardiovascular disease, at least in part due to a high intake of n-3 fatty acids. ESKIMO-3 is a new stabilized (insensitive to oxidation) fluid fish oil concentrate, 30 ml of which contains an amount of eicosapentaenoic acid and total n-3 fatty acids equivalent to the daily intake among Eskimos. Thirty-three volunteers, healthy or with coronary artery disease, were given ESKIMO-3, at a dose of 15 or 30 ml d-1, corresponding to 2.7 or 5.4 g of eicosapentaenoic acid d-1, or placebo oil, for a period of up to 6 months. ESKIMO-3 had a pronounced dose-dependent effect on several risk factors for coronary artery disease. Intake of one tablespoon (15 ml) daily for 6 months significantly reduced levels of triglycerides (-64%), total cholesterol (-8%), plasma fibrinogen (-23%) and diastolic blood pressure (-9%). Bleeding time was unchanged. Intake of two tablespoons daily for 4 weeks increased plasma eicosapentaenoic acid levels by 490%, and decreased arachidonic acid by 20%. The HDL concentration increased by 21%. No change in the above mentioned variables was observed after intake of placebo oil.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

HLA-DPw antigens in Danes and Eskimos as determined by local bulk PTL-reagents.

Primed Lymphocyte Typing cells (PLT-cells) with specificities for HLA-DP w1-w6 were generated. Responder and stimulator lymphocytes were from highly selected donors. Responder cells were primed twice (for 10 and 6 days respectively) prior to a third priming and bulk expansion in IL-2 containing medium. The coefficient of correlation between typing results obtained with local PLT-reagents and results based on 9th International Histocompatibility Workshop reagents was 0.91. As determined by batch to batch and day to day variations (different batch on different day), the reproducibility of +/- scorings and assignments obtained with local reagents was 0.87 (range 0.64-1.0) and 0.9 (range 0.69-1.0) respectively. The HLA-DPw gene frequencies in a population of 88 unrelated Danes and a population of 48 unrelated Greenland Eskimos were determined. The DPw gene frequencies observed in Danes were very similar to those reported in other Caucasian populations. Compared to Caucasians, a significantly lower frequency of DPw3 and a somewhat higher frequency of DPw2 were found in Eskimos. The findings did not differ from the Hardy-Weinberg expectations. No linkage disequilibrium between DR and DP was observed in the Eskimo population, whereas the DR3 - DPw1 association in Danes (Caucasians) was confirmed. With regard to HLA-DR, DR1, DR4 and DR7 were found to be more frequent in Eskimos than in Danes (not significant using corrected p values). The genetic distance between the Danish and Eskimo population was 0.21 as determined by DPw and 0.24 as determined by DR gene frequencies.

Asian People↗

PubMed1992

Diallelic polymorphism may explain variations of the blood concentration of mannan-binding protein in Eskimos, but not in black Africans.

Mannan-binding protein (MBP) is a lectin which, upon binding to certain carbohydrates, activates the classical pathway of complement without the involvement of antibody or C1q. Deficiency of the MBP is associated with an opsonic defect and recurrent infections during early life. An amino acid substitution in the exon 1 at codon 54 in the MBP gene (GGC [glycine] to GAC [aspartic acid]) has been shown to be closely associated with low MBP concentration in Caucasoids. The gene frequency of the mutant allele in this population has been estimated at 0.13. In the study described here, we investigated the association between the mutant allele and MBP protein concentration in Eskimos from East-Greenland and black Africans from the Baringo District in Kenya. The frequency of the GAC allele was identical in Eskimos and Caucasoids (0.13). No overlap with regard to MBP concentration between the genotypes was found in the Eskimos. In contrast, the Africans revealed a low frequency of the GAC allele (0.009). However, the median MBP protein concentration was approximately 5 times lower among the Africans than the Eskimos. In 12.6% of the Africans and in 2.5% of the Eskimos, MBP was undetectable. Thus, MBP deficiency is the most frequent immunodeficiency so far described. The high prevalence of MBP deficiency among healthy individuals indicates that MBP deficiency also confers some selective advantages. We advance the hypothesis that MBP deficiency is maintained in populations because MBP deficiency decreases the infectivity of some intracellular micro-organisms which are dependent on opsonization.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1978

Group-specific component, alpha1-antitrypsin and esterase D in Canadian Eskimos.

Three genetic markers - group-specific component (Gc), alpha1-antitrypsin, and esterase D - were examined in a population of Eskimos from Igloolik in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Gc and esterase D were found to be polymorphic. In addition to the common Gc types, an anodal variant called Gc Igloolik was found, probably identical to previously reported Gc Eskimo. Gene frequencies were Gc1: 0.6524, Gc2: 0.3373, GcIgl: 0.0104, for 338 Eskimos. Genetic types of alpha1-antitrypsin (Pi types) were mostly M, with two MS sibs who were half Caucasian, in 170 Eskimos. Frequencies of the esterase D allele in 336 Eskimos were EsD1: 0.7083, EsD2: 0.2917. The frequencies of Gc2 and EsD2 are both higher than are found in Caucasian populations.

Canada↗