[APUD system of endocrine cells. Morphological and histochemical characteristics].
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APUD Cells↗
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The eupeptide system: A general theory of gastrointestinal hormones.
Increasing knowledge of gastrointestinal "hormones" suggests a system which differs in many, if not most, respects from other endocrine systems. The established model of endocrine function, derived from studies of the hormones regulating growth, metabolism, and sexual function, is inappropriate; attempts to apply concepts such as the importance of plasma-hormone concentrations to the digestive tract have met with limited success. A new model of the gastrointestinal polypeptide system is proposed in which local "paracrine" action may be no less important, or more important, than distant "endocrine" action, and in which modulation of integrated neural control is a major function. The application of the word "hormone" to this polypeptide system is a devaluation of the term and an obstacle to the design of relevant physiological studies; an alternative nomenclature is proposed.
Cholecystokinin↗
Effects of cancer chemotherapeutic agents on endocrine organs and serum levels of estrogens, progesterone, prolactin, and luteinizing hormone.
The effects of the following cancer chemotherapeutic agents on serum hormonal levels, estrous cycles, and endocrine organs were studied in mature, normal Sprague-Dawley rats by radioimmunoassay, vaginal smear examination, and organ weight end point: estradiol mustard (NSC 112259), testosterone mustard (NSC 112260), phenoestrin (NSC 104469), methotrexate (NSC 740), 5-fluorouracil (NSC 19893), vinblastine (NSC 49842), vincristine (NSC 67574), nitrogen mustard (NSC 762), and 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea (NSC 409962). Following 2 weeks of treatment, estradiol-17beta levels were markedly elevated by all compounds except testosterone mustard and nitrogen mustard, which caused a decrease. Estrone levels were elevated by methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, vinblastine, vincristine, nitrogen mustard, and 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea, but were lowered by estradiol mustard. Progesterone levels were elevated only by estradiol mustard and testosterone mustard and were not affected by other compounds. Prolactin surge during proestrus was suppressed by phenesterin and methotrexate. Luteinizing hormone levels were lowered by methotrexate and nitrogen mustard. Estrous cycles of rats treated with estradiol mustard were arrested at proestrus, and the uterine and pituitary weights of these rats markedly increased. Uterine weight loss was significant following treatment with testosterone mustard, 5-fluorouracil, and nitrogen mustard. Thyroid weight was reduced by all compounds except methotrexate and vinblastine. Significant increases in pituitary weights occurred following treatment with all compounds except 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea. The effects on ovarian and adrenal weights were minimal although significant by some compounds. Thus, in addition to their direct antitumor effects, these agents also produced changes in endocrine system which may be synergistic or antagonistic to the chemotherapy of endocrine-responsive neoplasms.
Animals↗
[Mast cells as regulators of tissue homeostasis and their place in the series of biological regulators].
The most essential features of the mast cell are continuous production (and partially also absorption from the environment), deposition, and secretion of the two groups of biologically active substances of the regulatory type: heparin and other acid clycosaminoglycanes, and also histamine and, probably, other biogenic amines. These substances are antagonists and have an influence on the homeostasis of the microregion (capillary-connective tissue-parenchyma) -- the main area of action of the mast cells. The mast-cell population is characterized, as compared with other cellular populations of the microregion, by a smaller size, greater morphological and functional diversity, functional duality (capability of producing both a positive and negative effect), and therefore possesses a number of essential properties the biological regulator should meet. The system of mast cells differs from the regulators of a higher order (the nervous and endocrine system) by a smaller radius of action and a greater simplicity of the structure, the latter manifests itself in equality of all its components. The conclusion is drawn that mast cells may be considered as the regulators of tissue homeostasis and a last link in the general reaction of adaptation at the cellular level.
Anaphylaxis↗
Multiple endocrine adenomatosis syndromes.
MEA I and II are two genetically distinct tumor endocrinopathies, both showing autosomal dominant inheritance. Little overlap exists between these conditions, and that which is present can be explained on the basis of two mutually exclusive factors: (1) the secondary consequences of hormone excess on another endocrine gland or (2) the fact that both tumor syndromes appear to result from genetically faulty differentiation of neuroectoderm. A seemingly disproportionate amount of effort has been expended on study of the MEA syndromes. However, there would seen to be ample justification for this interest: 1) The MEA syndromes, unlike most neoplastic conditions, are hereditary and can be readily detected and more expeditiously treated; 2) hormone radioimmunoassay has greatly facilitated diagnosis in asymptomatic individuals; and (3) probably most importantly, study of these syndromes has provided considerable insight into the embryologic origin of the endocrine system. It is conceivable that knowledge gained from these conditions may stimulate further inquiry into the processes whereby neoplasia occurs in endocrine tissue and thus lead the way to the development of effective therapy for a host of hormone-producing tumors.
Adenoma↗
Exploring shared biomarkers and their mechanisms in thyroid cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus via bioinformatics analysis.
BACKGROUND: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disorder, is linked to a heightened risk of multiple malignancies, including thyroid cancer. Thyroid cancer is the most prevalent malignancy of the endocrine system, and its autoimmune-related pathological features render it an optimal subject for investigating the mechanisms of their comorbidity. The molecular mechanisms underlying this comorbidity are still ambiguous. The accurate diagnosis and treatment of thyroid cancer urgently necessitate innovative molecular targets that extend beyond conventional pathological characteristics. This study seeks to employ integrated bioinformatics approaches to elucidate potential shared molecular mechanisms and immunological features between thyroid cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), aiming to enhance understanding of their comorbidity and identify novel intervention targets. METHODS: This study initially acquired gene expression data for TC and SLE from the GEO database and subsequently screened and identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) shared by both diseases. Subsequently, we conducted Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG), and Reactome functional enrichment analyses on these 46 shared differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and further assessed the activation status of pertinent pathways using Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA). Subsequently, we employed CIBERSORTx to examine immune infiltration patterns and developed protein-protein interaction networks utilising the STRING database. We identified hub genes utilising the MCODE and cytoHubba plugins and visualised the findings with Cytoscape software. We additionally assessed the diagnostic efficacy of these core hub genes in an independent dataset utilising ROC curves and investigated their prognostic relevance in thyroid cancer through Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and multivariate Cox proportional hazards regression. Ultimately, we employed the Network Analyst platform to forecast transcription factor-gene and miRNA-gene regulatory networks and identified potential targeted therapeutic compounds utilising the DSigDB database. RESULTS: This study identified 46 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) commonly linked to thyroid cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), which were significantly enriched in signalling pathways associated with immune-inflammatory activation, type I interferon responses, and complement pathway activation. Moreover, GSEA findings validated that immune-inflammatory and autoimmune-related pathways are markedly activated in both conditions. Twelve hub genes were discerned through protein-protein interaction networks. Analysis of immune infiltration indicated that thyroid cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus exhibit a shared characteristic of innate immune dysregulation, marked by the infiltration of myeloid cells (neutrophils, M0/M2 macrophages). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis identified six significant core hub genes with substantial diagnostic value: C1QB, LCN2, C1QC, LTF, VSIG4, and C3AR1. Univariate survival analysis indicated that elevated expression of C1QC and C3AR1 significantly enhances overall survival in thyroid cancer patients; however, multivariate COX regression analysis revealed that their independent prognostic significance necessitates further validation. This study predicted the interaction networks of transcription factors and miRNAs regulating key genes, with LCN2 demonstrating the highest connectivity to miRNAs, and identified candidate therapeutic compounds linked to it. CONCLUSION: This study employed bioinformatics analysis to identify critical shared hub genes and molecular pathways connecting thyroid cancer and systemic lupus erythematosus, offering novel insights into their shared pathogenesis and the advancement of targeted biomarkers and therapeutic strategies.
Bioinformatics analysis↗
Oat cell carcinoma as a malignant apudoma.
The neural crest origin of cells secreting amine and polypeptide hormones (APUD cells) is a unifying concept. The relationship of the classical endocrine system to that of tumor hormone secretion can be explained by the diffuse migration and later neoplasia of these unique cells. This paper describes the APUD cell origins of oat cell carcinoma.
Carcinoma, Adenoid Cystic↗
Secretion of the adrenal androgen, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, during normal infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in sick infants, and in children with endocrinologic abnormalities.
Serum concentrations of the adrenal androgen, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, were measured by radioimmunoassay in normal infants and children, in sick premature and full-term newborn infants, and in patients undergoing evaluation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal and -adrenal systems. Premature infants had significantly greater (p less than 0.001) levels of DHAS (263 +/- 40)[SE]migrong/dl) than did full-term infants (58.9 +/- 5.2) during the first ten days of life; further increments occurred in stressed "sick" infants. A gradual age- and maturity-related rise in serum concentrations of DHAS was observed during childhood with the earliest increase occurring prior to the onset of pubertal production of gonadal steroids. Serum levels of DHAS rose following administration of ACTH and were increased in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia, in whom rapid decrements followed treatment with dexamethasone. hCG or LH-RH treatment did not alter DHAS concentrations. These data suggest that direct secretion of DHAS by the adrenal gland and/or peripheral sulfation of DHA, rather than gonadal secretion, accounts for the majority of DHAS production. The involvement of adrenal androgens in the pubertal maturation of the reproductive endocrine system thus may be evaluated by quantitation of serum DHAS.
Adolescent↗
Neuro-epithelial bodies in the lung of the rat and the mouse.
Histochemical and ultrastructural examinations were performed on neuroepithelial bodies (N. E. B.) in the lung of the mouse and rat. The N. E. B. were identified as specialized groups of pale, columnar cells. They were located throughout the intrapulmonary airway. These cells displayed some special cytochemical properties also seen in the APUD (Amine Precursors Uptake and Decarboxylation) endocrine system, such as cytoplasmic argyrophilia and the capability of selective uptake of amine precursors. Ultrastructrally the N. E. B. were composed of a kind of granulated cell which had concentrations of specific cored vesicles in the basal cytoplasm. It seemed likely that the cells released the contents of the cored vesicles into the extracellular space by exocytosis. These cells made extensive and intimate contact with the mitochondria-rich nerve terminals which occurred mainly at the level of the supranuclear portions of the granulated cells. In this contact area, the membrane of the nerve terminals were apposed to that of the granulated cells with a consistent gap of about 20 nm. Among these membrane appositions, some membrane thickenings were observed in which cored vesicles were closely associated in the granulated cell cytoplasm. From these observations, it was conceived that the lung N. E. B. function both as receptor and endocrine organs and that their specific cored vesicles may have an intimate correlation with these dual functions.
APUD Cells↗
Comparative physiology and the challenge of design.
Analysis of the complexity of biological organization commonly takes us through an initial and necessary stage of over-simplification towards the ultimate goal of an appreciation of the subtle intricacy of nature. One example of this is that recent advances in studies of the phosphagens have failed to confirm earlier hopes that the distribution of these substances could be used to confirm phylogenetic relationships. It is now suggested that a previously unrecognized factor influencing this distribution may be competing demands for arginine in the development of the testes. Another illustration is the belief that the presence of iodine in ascidians may provide a clue to the origin of thyroidal biosynthesis. This belief is probably sound, but the presence of abundant iodine in the tunic may well be a false trail. More significant is the presence of much smaller amounts of bound iodine in the endostyle, where its presence is probably correlated with specialized protein metabolism associated with the ciliary feeding mechanism. A third illustration, discussed in more detail, is provided by recent recognition that the gut is a major component of the vertebrate endocrine system. This lays open attractive fields of research, ranging from problems of molecular and hormonal evolution to aspects of fish farming and the physiology of gut parasites. The need is thus plain for breadth of perspective in comparative physiological research, and for recognition that the ultimate concern of the biologist is with the life and relationships of the whole organism.
Animals↗
Mouse Testing Methods in Psychoneuroimmunology: Measuring Behavioral Responses.
The field of psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) aims to uncover the processes and consequences of nervous, immune, and endocrine system relationships. Behavior is a consequence of such interactions and manifests from a complex interweave of factors including immune-to-neural and neural-to-immune communication. Often the signaling molecules involved during a particular episode of neuroimmune activation are not known, but behavioral response provides evidence that bioactives such as neurotransmitters and cytokines are perturbed. Immunobehavioral phenotyping is a first-line approach when examining the neuroimmune system and its reaction to immune stimulation or suppression. Behavioral response is significantly more sensitive than direct measurement of a single specific bioactive and can quickly and efficiently rule in or out relevance of a particular immune challenge or therapeutic to neuroimmunity. Classically, immunobehavioral research was focused on sickness symptoms related to bacterial infection, but neuroimmune activation is now a recognized complication of diseases and disorders ranging from cancer to diabesity to Alzheimer's. Immunobehaviors include lethargy, loss of appetite, and disinterest in social activity/surrounding environment. In addition, neuroimmune activation can diminish physical activity, precipitate feelings of depression and anxiety, and impair cognitive and executive function. Provided is a detailed overview of behavioral tests frequently used to examine neuroimmune activation in mice with a special emphasis on pre-experimental conditions that can confound or prevent successful immunobehavioral experimentation.
Animals↗
Sample Preparation of Caenorhabditis elegans for GC-MS-Based Metabolomics in Toxicity Assessment.
The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, widely recognized as a model organism due to its ease of breeding and well-characterized genomes, boasts complete digestive, reproductive, and endocrine systems, as well as conserved signaling pathways shared with mammals. It has become an invaluable resource for metabolomics research, particularly in examining responses to chemical or environmental factors and toxicity assessments. In this article, we provide detailed, step-by-step protocols for cultivating C. elegans and conducting metabolomics analyses, specifically focusing on sample preparation for GC-MS analysis in response to toxic compound treatments. We highlight the critical choice of extraction solvent, introducing two representative systems for extracting metabolites from C. elegans.
Animals↗
Transplacental effects of nitrosamines in Syrian hamsters. II. Nitrosopiperidine.
Nitrosopiperidine (NP) was found in Syrian hamsters quantitatively in the maternal blood for more than 8 h after subcutaneous injection, whereas it disappeared from placenta, fetus and amniotic fluid within the same time period. For N6MI, only traces were seen after 2 h in the same tissues. The long-term transplacental effect of a single dose of NP was weak, as demonstrated by a low respiratory tract tumor incidence (P-generation: 54%, F1- generation: 4%). Some tumors occurring in the digestive tract of exposed young were not found in their mothers and not commonly observed in controls. These tumors were considered a borderline transplacental effect. Tumors of other sites (i.e., the urogenital and genital tracts, reticuloendothelial system, endocrine organs and other tissues) corresponded in incidences to the overall fluctuations observed in this hamster colony.
Animals↗
Histochemistry and histoenzymology of the hydatid cyst (Echinococcus granulosus Batsch, 1786). I. The germinal membrane.
Healthy germinal membranes of hydatid cysts from lungs of human and bovine sources were dissected and isolated for histochemical and histoenzymatic research. These techniques were performed in frozen sections and pieces of the whole membrane. Enzymatic research showed that the germinal membrane presents highly differentiated metabolic areas. These areas were topographically related with the origin and insertion of brood capsules, having differentiated structures for metabolic interchange with scolices. Taking our data into account it may be suggested that this functional differentiation could be transitory and variable for all the membrane surface. The accumulation of lipids and enzymes such as simple estarase, lipase, beta-HDH, alpha-GDH and NADPH-reductase in those areas, suggests that lipids are not a simple excretory product. This distribution probably implies that lipid metabolism or its resultant products are important in development and growth of scolices. In that sense other authors' findings and hypothesis about the possible existence of an endocrine system of the parasite, are considered. This idea being demonstrated in further researches, the lipid metabolic pathways shall bring a good pharmacological approach to the interference with parasite development.
Alcohol Oxidoreductases↗
Adaptive character of liver glucokinase.
1. Glucokinase is one of four glucose phosphorylating enzymes present in rat liver. Its distinctive features are a high K-m for glucose (high-K-m isozyme) and a rather narrow substrate specificity. In contrast, the other three enzymes, collectively called hexokinases or low-K-m isozymes, exhibit low K-m values for glucose and a wider substrate specificity. 2. Glucokinase is present in the liver os mammals (with some exceptions), amphibians and lower reptiles; It is absent from higher reptiles and birds. The presence or absence of glucokinase may represent an evolutionary adaptation to feeding habits and other physiological peculiarities. Differences in the immunological behavior and in the kinetic parameters of glucokinases from different taxa suggest the operation of divergent evolution. 3. The levels of glucokinase in rat liver depend strictly on the supply of carbohydrate in the diet. Glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthetase behave similarly, whereas other carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes depend on the provision of either protein or protein plus carbohydrate. Glucokinase decays with a half-life of 33 hr when rats are starved or fed a carbohydrate-free diet, and is induced by the administration of glucose. The adaptive character is not exhibited by all mammals, indicating evolutionary discrimination within the same class and even within the same single order Rodentia. Enzyme adaptation in the liver may partially explain the condition known as 'hunger diabetes'. 4. The endocrine system plays a paramount role in glucokinase adaptation, since insulin is essential for glucose-dependent glucokinase induction and, on the other hand, glucagon, catecholamines and cyclic AMP prevent the induction. Glucocorticoids and some pituitary hormones modulate the rate of induction. The mechanisms underlying the hormonal regulation of glucokinase levels are not well known. 5. The variations in liver glucokinase correspond to changes in the amount of enzyme protein as assessed by immunochemical titration. This fact agrees with the effects of inhibitors of protein synthesis on glucokinase induction. 6. An antiserum against rat glucokinase reacts with the enzyme from mammals and turtles but not with the amphibian enzyme. It does not react with low-K-m hexokinases from different sources. 7. The saturation function for glucose is sigmoidal in mammalian and amphibian glucokinases but not in glucokinase from lower reptiles. The Hill's coefficient is very constant with values about 1.6. The K0.5 (concentration for half saturation) values in the different species studied vary between 1.5 and 8 mM. These kinetic parameters may be considered as another adaptive feature aimed to give maximal efficiency to the liver uptake of glucose at the changeable concentrations in the blood resulting from variations in the amount of dietary glucose.
Adaptation, Physiological↗
Firemaster 550 differentially alters gene expression underlying synaptic function in amygdala of prairie voles after gestational or lactational exposure.
Neurodevelopmental disorders often share similar behavioral diagnostic criteria including socioemotional and cognitive deficits. The prairie vole is a uniquely suitable model to study these deficits because they demonstrate strong social affiliation, bi-parental care, and partner attachment. Previously, we have shown that developmental exposure to the flame-retardant mixture Firemaster 550 (FM 550) impairs socioemotional behavior in the prairie vole and alters underlying neuroanatomy and function. However, the mechanisms for impaired pair bonding in males and increased anxiety in females remain unknown, along with the specific critical window(s) of vulnerability. Herein, we exposed prairie vole dams to FM 550 during gestation or lactation, and performed bulk RNA-seq on the amygdala, a hub of socioemotional processing, in their adult offspring. Two mathematically orthogonal methods were utilized for analysis, a linear statistical method and an ensemble machine learning method, incorporating sex as a biological variable. Gene ontology (GO) pathway analysis was performed following both and results compared to identify potential mechanisms of toxicity. GO results indicated consistent expression changes in the Synapse cellular component in all conditions, and implicated glutamatergic signaling specifically. Additionally, gestational exposure (GE) altered genes underlying modulation of synaptic transmission and neural development, while lactational exposure (LE) impacted genes underlying synaptic plasticity, axon guidance, and mitophagy. Machine learning identified disruption of endocrine system development, regulation of biosynthetic processes in GE animals, and suppression of various neuroinflammatory genes across multiple groups. Finally, we performed RNA expression analysis using Nanostring and demonstrated stronger correlation with the differentially expressed genes (DEG) of interest in females than males. Overall, this study demonstrates both the intersecting and distinct impacts of FM 550 exposure on amygdalar gene expression depending on sex and timing of exposure.
Animals↗
Mechanisms of Hexavalent Chromium-Induced Reproductive Toxicity: A Focus on the Ovary and Placenta.
Hexavalent Chromium (Cr(VI)) is a Group A carcinogen, mutagen, and teratogen. Cr(VI) has been used by more than 50 industries, and its contamination of drinking water is widespread across the United States (U.S.). Epidemiological data of women who lived in Willits, California, U.S., indicate that environmental exposure to Cr(VI) adversely affects pregnancy outcomes and the health of their immediate offspring, resulting in a low birth rate, pregnancy loss, and spontaneous abortion, and their children (F1 offspring) experienced birth defects. However, the molecular mechanisms behind Cr(VI)-induced reproductive and developmental toxicity are poorly understood. Cr(VI) enters cells through anion transporters and is rapidly reduced to Cr(III) by endogenous antioxidants within the cell. Cr(III) forms adducts with DNA, which can block DNA replication and transcription; abnormal repair can lead to DNA double-strand breaks, mutations, micronucleus formation, chromosomal abnormalities, and increased genomic instability. Cr(VI) induces oxidative stress via the Fenton reaction, generating free radicals, and depleting antioxidants, thereby promoting apoptosis via p53-dependent and independent pathways, resulting in follicular atresia and accelerated reproductive aging. Antioxidant supplementation with resveratrol, vitamin C, and edaravone mitigates Cr(VI) toxicity in the ovary. Cr(VI) disrupts meiosis in metaphase II oocytes by causing DNA strand breaks, altering F-actin dynamics, disturbing microtubules, and leading to chromosome missegregation. Gestational exposure to Cr(VI) also disrupts placental function through multiple mechanisms by targeting trophoblast lineages. The current review focuses on genotoxicity, oxidative stress, and other mechanisms by which Cr(VI) disrupts the female reproductive and endocrine systems, with particular emphasis on the ovary and placenta.
Hexavalent chromium↗
Functional tumors of the organ of Zuckerkandl.
Chromaffin-reacting pheochromocytomas of the adrenal medulla are the most frequently encountered functional paraganglionic neoplasms. However, extra-adrenal pheochromocytomas as well as non-chromaffin paragangliomas, including those of the carotid body and glomus jugulare, may produce symptoms from catecholamine secretion. One of the extra-adrenal sites from which these tumors arise is from a collection of para-aortic, paraganglion cells around the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery. This collection of paraganglia was described in fetuses by Zuckerkandl in 1901 and has subsequently been referred to as the organ of Zuckerkandl. The diagnosis and management of these neoplasms differ somewhat from that of adrenal pheochromocytomas, but excellent results are often obtained by excision of these lesions. Four patients with functional tumors of the organ of Zuckerkandl are reviewed together with the other reported cases in the literature.
Adolescent↗