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PubMed2001

Expectancy-value constructs and expectancy violation as predictors of exercise adherence in previously sedentary women.

This prospective study examined effects of expectancy of exercise benefits, value of benefits, expectancy violation, and self-efficacy (SE) on exercise behavior and study dropout in sedentary women (n=86). SE predicted exercise for study completers but did not predict study dropout. After 6 and 12 weeks, participants evidenced expectancy violations, particularly for fitness and weight. Initial value, expectancy, and Expectancy X Value did not predict exercise for study completers, but dropouts had higher initial positive expectancies than did completers. Expectancy violations produced in Weeks 1-6 did not predict exercise in Weeks 7-12 in study completers, but dropouts in Weeks 7-12 had higher expectancy violations for weight in Weeks 1-6 than did completers. Follow-up revealed that study dropouts stopped exercising. Identifying individuals with high initial expectancies and expectancy violations may improve health behavior intervention and research.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Predicting problem behaviors with multiple expectancies: expanding expectancy-value theory.

Expectancy-value theory emphasizes the importance of outcome expectancies for behavioral decisions, but most tests of the theory focus on a single behavior and a single expectancy. However, the matching law suggests that individuals consider expected outcomes for both the target behavior and alternative behaviors when making decisions. In this study, we expanded expectancy-value theory to evaluate the contributions of two competing expectancies to adolescent behavior problems. One hundred twenty-one high school students completed measures of behavior problems, expectancies for both acting out and academic effort, and perceived academic competence. Students' self-reported behavior problems covaried mostly with perceived competence and academic expectancies and only nominally with problem behavior expectancies. We suggest that behavior problems may result from students perceiving a lack of valued or feasible alternative behaviors, such as studying. We discuss implications for interventions and suggest that future research continue to investigate the contribution of alternative expectancies to behavioral decisions.

Acting Out↗

PubMed2006

Decomposition of life expectancy and expected life-years lost by disease.

Life expectancy is commonly used to summarize the life-time mortality experience of a population. Differences in life expectancy are well-known across different levels of socioeconomic status such as income and education. A recent simulation study of potential life-years lost has shown the effects that major diseases contribute to differences in life expectancy at birth. We propose a general methodology to decompose life expectancy and expected life-years lost by disease in order to determine the contribution of diseases to differences in life expectancy at each given age. We show that the estimates for the life expectancy, expected life-years lost and their variances at each age can be computed backward recursively from an old age. The difference in life expectancy between groups will be shown to include contributions from diseases and life-year differences which occur after an old age cut-off beyond which the contribution of diseases cannot be easily determined. Diseases will be grouped into 14 major disease categories. Data from the National Longitudinal Mortality Study will be used for demonstration purposes.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Social gradient in life expectancy and health expectancy in Denmark.

OBJECTIVES: Health status of a population can be evaluated by health expectancy expressed as average lifetime in various states of health. The purpose of the study was to compare health expectancy in population groups at high, medium and low educational levels. METHODS: Health interview data were combined with life table figures using Sullivan's method. RESULTS: Life expectancy was 4.3 years longer for 30-year-old men with a high educational level than for those with a low level. At age 30, the proportion of expected lifetime in self-rated good health was 67.7%, 76.1% and 82.3% for men with a low, medium and high educational level, respectively. Among women, life expectancy differed by 2.7 years between low and high educational level, and the proportion of expected lifetime in self-rated good health was 62.5% at the low and 80.5% at the high educational level. CONCLUSIONS: Educational level and life expectancy are clearly related. The social gradient in terms of health expectancy is even greater than that in terms of life expectancy.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1985

Surgical patients' expectations of pain and discomfort: does accuracy of expectations minimise post-surgical pain and distress?

The predictive relationship of expectancies of pain and symptoms to the experience of postoperative pain, symptoms and distress are examined in two studies of adult patients undergoing minor gynaecological surgery. The first hypothesis is based on the clinical wisdom that patients who expect pain to occur will report greater pain intensity than patients who do not hold these expectancies. That is, pain and symptom expectation and experience are positively associated. A second hypothesis based on a cognitive information processing model suggests that the greater the discrepancy between expected and actual pain the greater the experience of postoperative distress. A third hypothesis suggests that the direction of the discrepancy is important such that those patients who expect pain to be more intense than it is in actuality will report being least distressed. Data are presented which partially support all 3 hypotheses. A critical test between the second and third hypotheses did not provide support for either hypothesis. The positive correlations between expected and reported pain and emotional variables suggest that the manipulation of patients' emotional responses may be as effective as manipulating pain expectancies in controlling the pain and distress of surgery. This is supported by the finding that patients who receive accurate preparatory information about their surgery, in comparison to those who had no additional information, reported lower pain intensity but did not differ on expected pain intensity before the operation. However, the experimental manipulation was associated with reduced pain and emotional responses after surgery. The implications for the design of preparatory psychological interventions to reduce the pain and distress of surgery are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Self-efficacy expectancies, outcome expectancies, and the persistence of pain control in childbirth.

Bandura's (1977) self-efficacy theory of mastery behavior distinguishes self-efficacy expectancies from outcome expectancies. The relative roles of self-efficacy expectancies, outcome expectancies, and importance were studied as predictors of persistence of pain control in medication-free childbirth. Fifty-two primiparous women made self-efficacy judgments before and during labor and then reported in postdelivery interviews the timing and amount of medication use during labor and delivery. Self-efficacy expectancies predicted persistence in pain control without medication better than outcome expectancies, importance, and seven other alternative predictors, supporting several aspects of construct validation of the self-efficacy expectancy construct. However, self-efficacy and outcome expectancies were very highly correlated and largely redundant in their correlations with mastery. Three possible reasons and implications for the lack of differentiation of self-efficacy and outcome expectancies are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Positive alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior: the influence of expectancy strength and memory accessibility.

College student drinkers (N = 314) participated in a health survey in which they (a) completed an alcohol-related memory association task (expectancy accessibility measure), (b) rated their positive expectancies about alcohol use (expectancy strength measure), and (c) reported their level of alcohol involvement. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that both expectancy accessibility and expectancy strength predicted frequency of alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Moreover, moderational analyses showed that the association between expectancy strength and frequency of alcohol use was greater for those who generated more alcohol responses on the expectancy association task. These findings suggest that the outcome association measure and Likert scale ratings of expectancies may assess distinct properties of expectancy representations, which may have independent and interactive effects on different aspects of drinking behavior.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Do rural consumers expect a prescription from their GP visit? Investigation of patients' expectations for a prescription and doctors' prescribing decisions in rural Australia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess patients' expectation for receiving a prescription and GPs' perceptions of patient expectation for a prescription. DESIGN: Matched questionnaire study completed by patients and GPs. SETTING: Seven general practices in rural Queensland, Australia. SUBJECTS: The subjects were 481 patients consulting 17 GPs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Patients' expectation for receiving a prescription and GPs' perceptions of patients' expectation. RESULTS: Ideal expectation (hope) for a prescription was expressed by 57% (274/481) of patients. Sixty-six per cent (313/481) thought it was likely that the doctor would actually give them a prescription. Doctors accurately predicted hope or lack of hope for a prescription in 65% (314/481) of consultations, but were inaccurate in 19% (93/481). A prescription was written in 55% of consultations. No increase in patients' expectation, doctors' perceptions of expectation, or decision to prescribe were detected for patients living a greater distance from the doctors. CONCLUSIONS: Rural patients demonstrated similar rates of hope for a prescription to those found in previous urban studies. Rural doctors seem to be similarly 'accurate' and 'inaccurate' in determining patients' expectations. Rates of prescribing were comparable to urban rates. Distance was not found to increase the level of patient expectation, affect the doctors' perception or to influence the decision to prescribe.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Validation of multidimensional scaling-based modeling of alcohol expectancies in memory: age and drinking-related differences in expectancies of children assessed as first associates.

BACKGROUND: As evidence has accumulated that alcohol expectancies mediate the effects of other drinking antecedents, attempts to understand the mechanism by which expectancies influence behavior have focused on modeling memory processes. Previous expectancy work, however, has used relatively indirect approaches to retrieve and model information stored in memory. By using the method most recommended by memory researchers for directly obtaining uncontaminated memory contents, we assessed children's expectancies and related findings to empirically modeled organization and activation of expectancies in memory based on scaled instruments. METHODS: Individual interviews were conducted with 462 children in 2nd through 5th grades, and surveys were completed by 1,003 children in 3rd, 6th, 9th, and 12th grades. Interviews and surveys consisted of a measure designed to retrieve participants' first expectancy associate to an alcohol prompt and several drinking quantity/frequency questions. RESULTS: Older and higher drinking children were more likely to report positive expectancies as their first associate to an alcohol prompt. Age and drinking-based findings were consistent with organizational structure, dimension emphasis shift, and paths of association identified by prior multidimensional scaling techniques. CONCLUSIONS: Consumption of alcohol among children corresponded to accessibility of positive expectancies in memory. In addition, the use of multidimensional scaling to study the organization and activation of alcohol expectancies in memory was validated.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

Preferences as expectation-driven inferences: effects of affective expectations on affective experience.

Presents a model arguing that affect and emotion are often formed in an expectation-driven fashion. A pilot study and 2 experiments manipulated undergraduate Ss' affective expectations (e.g., how funny they expected a set of cartoons to be) and whether Ss' expectations were confirmed (e.g., whether the cartoons really were funny). When the value of a stimulus was consistent with an affective expectation, people formed evaluations relatively quickly. Even when the value of a stimulus was discrepant from an affective expectation, people sometimes assimilated the value of the stimulus to their expectations. Other times, such as when making a more fine-grained evaluation of the cartoons, people noticed that they were discrepant from their affective expectations. Under these conditions, people appeared to have more difficulty forming preferences. They took longer to evaluate and spent more time thinking about the cartoons.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Perceiver self-presentational goals as moderators of expectancy influences: ingratiation and the disconfirmation of negative expectancies.

Self-fulfilling prophecy processes enable people to confirm their negative expectancies for others. The perceiver goal of ingratiation was hypothesized to alter this behavioral dynamic and thus lead perceivers to disconfirm their negative expectancies. In an interview setting, we manipulated interviewer Ss' expectancies and interaction goals. As anticipated, "no goal" interviewers were relatively cold and challenging toward their negative-expectancy applicants; as a result, these applicants performed somewhat less favorably, consistent with interviewer expectancies. In contrast, "liking goal" interviewers were relatively warm and unthreatening toward their negative-expectancy applicants; as a result, these applicants performed favorably, disconfirming interviewer expectancies. These data support a framework in which perceiver self-presentation goals are conceptualized to moderate the expectancy-confirmation process.

Bias↗

PubMed2005

Alcohol expectancies, conduct disorder and early-onset alcoholism: negative alcohol expectancies are associated with less drinking in non-impulsive versus impulsive subjects.

AIMS: Research suggests that positive alcohol expectancies promote excessive alcohol use while negative alcohol expectancies discourage excessive alcohol use. Evidence suggests that disinhibitory characteristics, such as conduct disorder and impulsivity, are associated with a general neglect of long-term negative outcomes. This study assessed whether negative expectancies would be associated more strongly with lower levels of alcohol use for low- compared with high-impulsive individuals. DESIGN: Positive and negative alcohol expectancies, alcohol use and impulsivity were assessed in a sample of 99 young adults with alcohol dependence (AD) and conduct disorder (CD), 77 with AD and no CD and 124 controls. FINDINGS: AD/CD subjects had higher proximal (same day) and distal (next day) negative alcohol expectancies, even though they drank more alcohol, compared with AD-alone and control subjects. Distal negative expectancies were associated more strongly with lower levels of drinking for low-impulsive compared with high-impulsive subjects. Proximal negative expectancies were associated more strongly with higher alcohol consumption for high- versus low-impulsive subjects. CONCLUSIONS: Impulsivity and conduct disorder may be important factors in determining how much distal negative alcohol expectancies may discourage excessive alcohol consumption.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Expecting the best for students: teacher expectations and academic outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Research into teacher expectations has shown that these have an effect on student achievement. Some researchers have explored the impact of various student characteristics on teachers' expectations. One attribute of interest is ethnicity. AIMS: This study aimed to explore differences in teachers' expectations and judgments of student reading performance for Maori, Pacific Island, Asian and New Zealand European students. A further objective was to compare teacher expectations and judgments with actual student achievement. SAMPLE: The participants were 540 students of 21 primary teachers in Auckland schools. Of these students, 261 were New Zealand European, 88 were Maori, 97 were Pacific Island and 94 were Asian. METHODS: At the beginning of the year, the teachers completed a survey related to their expectations for their students' achievement in reading and, at the end of the year, they judged the reading levels their students had actually achieved. The survey data were compared with running record data. RESULTS: Teachers' expectations for students in reading were significantly higher than actual achievement for all ethnic groups other than Maori. Maori students' achievement was similar to that of the other groups at the beginning of the year but, by the end of the year, they had made the least gains of all groups. CONCLUSIONS: Sustaining expectation effects are one explanation for Maori students' limited progress. For Pacific Island, Asian and New Zealand European students, positive self-fulfilling prophecies may be operating. Future research could investigate the learning opportunities provided to these ethnic groups and the relationship of these to teachers' expectations.

Achievement↗

PubMed1977

Patient characteristics and expectancy measures as factors that influence the expectancy-improvement relationship.

A recent study found factored measures of patient's expectancies for therapeutic gain significantly correlated with 1 of 15 objective measures of treatment outcome for the hospitalized patients. A subsequent study of the same relationship that used unfactored expectancy measured with a diagnostically homogenous sample of patients found the patients' expectancies significantly correlated with 10 of the same 15 measures of improvement. This study reexamined the initial expectancy-improvement data using unfactored measures of expectancy. The overall results showed that characteristics of samples of Ss and the adequacy of expectancy measures both significantly influence the results of tests of the expectancy-improvement relationship.

Attitude to Health↗

PubMed2003

Reinforcement expectancies for studying predict drinking problems among college students: approaching problem drinking from an expectancies choice perspective.

Molar behavioral choice theories point to the important role reinforcement for alternative behaviors may play in reducing problem drinking [Psychol. Addict. Behav. 9 (1995) 223.]. A similar molar choice perspective may apply to a cognitive mediational level of analysis: the molecular link between alcohol expectancies and drinking behavior depends on expectancies for alternative behaviors. In this study, 82 college students completed the Alcohol Effects Questionnaire (AEFQ), the Rutgers Alcohol Problem Index (RAPI), a self-report measure of drinking quantity and frequency, and a five-item studying expectancies questionnaire devised for the current study. Analyses indicated that, among students who hold high alcohol expectancies, those who reported high studying expectancies drink less and develop significantly fewer drinking problems than those who hold low studying expectancies. Future research may address the possibility of reducing drinking problems among college students by enhancing studying expectancies.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Positive expectations in the early years of marriage: should couples expect the best or brace for the worst?

The current study examined whether the effects of positive expectations on changes in marital satisfaction over the first 4 years of marriage were moderated by the nature of spouses' interaction behaviors and relationship attributions. Consistent with predictions, when spouses' skills were most positive, positive expectations predicted more stable satisfaction over time whereas less positive expectations predicted steeper declines. Alternatively, when spouses' skills were most negative, positive expectations predicted steeper declines in satisfaction over time whereas less positive expectations predicted more stable satisfaction. Thus, in contrast to the idea that expectations in the early years of marriage exert main effects on satisfaction, the current findings suggest that the effects of expectations interact with the skills partners bring to their relationships.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Measuring adolescent smoking expectancies by incorporating judgments about the expected time of occurrence of smoking outcomes.

French and English Canadian adolescents completed a smoking expectancy questionnaire and 2 measures of current smoking status. Multiple regression revealed that beliefs about the expected time of occurrence of smoking outcomes explained unique variance in current smoking after controlling for judgments about the probability and desirability of these outcomes. In addition, the relationship between the perceived probability of the general costs of smoking and current smoking was moderated by beliefs about the expected time of occurrence of these costs. There was no relationship between perceived probability of general costs and smoking for adolescents who expected the costs to occur far in the future, whereas there was a significant negative relationship between these 2 variables for adolescents who expected the costs to occur soon after smoking. The authors' results suggest that it may be possible to increase the concurrent validity of traditional smoking expectancy measures by incorporating expected-time-of-occurrence judgments.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1987

[The effects of teacher expectancy and self-expectancy on performance].

The present study was designed to investigate the effect on performance of the relationship between teacher expectancy and self-expectancy. For the induced expectancy, a random half of 96 high school students enrolled in a four-week summer language course of a Christian association were described to the instructors as having high success potential. The remaining trainees served as controls. Correct scores on the learning task, instructor ratings of behavior and attitude of the instructors were measured on three sessions of the course. Ratings of teacher's behavior were factor-analyzed and four interpretable factors emerged: Support, Caring, Attention, and Tutoring. The induced expectancy and specific levels of self-expectancy had significant effects on the subjects' performance and ratings of the instructor. It was concluded that self-expectancy mediates the effects of teacher expectancy on learning performance. Implications of these results for the Pygmalion effect were discussed.

Achievement↗