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PubMed2004

Motorcycle rider conspicuity and crash related injury: case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the risk of motorcycle crash related injuries is associated with the conspicuity of the driver or vehicle. DESIGN: Population based case-control study. SETTING: Auckland region of New Zealand from February 1993 to February 1996. PARTICIPANTS: 463 motorcycle drivers (cases) involved in crashes leading to hospital treatment or death; 1233 motorcycle drivers (controls) recruited from randomly selected roadside survey sites. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Estimates of relative risk of motorcycle crash related injury and population attributable risk associated with conspicuity measures, including the use of reflective or fluorescent clothing, headlight operation, and colour of helmet, clothing, and motorcycle. RESULTS: Crash related injuries occurred mainly in urban zones with 50 km/h speed limit (66%), during the day (63%), and in fine weather (72%). After adjustment for potential confounders, drivers wearing any reflective or fluorescent clothing had a 37% lower risk (multivariate odds ratio 0.63, 95% confidence interval 0.42 to 0.94) than other drivers. Compared with wearing a black helmet, use of a white helmet was associated with a 24% lower risk (multivariate odds ratio 0.76, 0.57 to 0.99). Self reported light coloured helmet versus dark coloured helmet was associated with a 19% lower risk. Three quarters of motorcycle riders had their headlight turned on during the day, and this was associated with a 27% lower risk (multivariate odds ratio 0.73, 0.53 to 1.00). No association occurred between risk and the frontal colour of drivers' clothing or motorcycle. If these odds ratios are unconfounded, the population attributable risks are 33% for wearing no reflective or fluorescent clothing, 18% for a non-white helmet, 11% for a dark coloured helmet, and 7% for no daytime headlight operation. CONCLUSIONS: Low conspicuity may increase the risk of motorcycle crash related injury. Increasing the use of reflective or fluorescent clothing, white or light coloured helmets, and daytime headlights are simple, cheap interventions that could considerably reduce motorcycle crash related injury and death.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1992

Motorcycle helmet-use laws and head injury prevention.

OBJECTIVE: To rebut criticism of a previous study of motorcycle helmet-use laws through reanalysis with improved measures of exposure, stratification for regional differences in crash risk, and addressing of total motorcycle-related mortality and the grounds for targeting motorcyclists for helmet-use laws. DESIGN: Death certificate-based correlational study of motorcycle-related deaths and motorcycle helmet-use laws. POPULATION STUDIED: United States resident deaths from 1979 through 1986. RESULTS: Regardless of the denominator used (resident population, motorcycle registrations, or motorcycle crashes), states with full helmet-use laws had consistently lower head injury-associated death rates than states without such laws, even when stratified by region. Total motorcycle-related mortality, however, was similar between law groups. On a registration or crash basis, motorcyclists who died in crashes had a fivefold to sixfold higher risk of head injury than those who died using any other type of motor vehicle. CONCLUSION: Full helmet-use laws were consistently associated with lower rates of head injury-associated death. While disagreement remains on the acceptability of the legislative approach, the scientific basis for motorcycle helmet-use laws as a head injury prevention tool appears sound.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2006

Risky behaviors among motorcycling adolescents in Italy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between risky behaviors and motorcycling in adolescents in Italy. STUDY DESIGN: A questionnaire was administered to a random sample of 1000 adolescents attending randomly selected public secondary schools to assess personal characteristics and lifestyle; motorcycle and helmet use; behavior while driving a motorcycle; traffic-related accidents, and receipt of tickets. RESULTS: Of the 894 responders, 54% and 29.2% routinely use the helmet as driver or passenger, respectively. Routine helmet use was higher among males, current smokers, alcohol drinkers, and those who reported that at least one close friend used a helmet. Motorcycling after consuming alcohol was higher in males, in current smokers, and in those who used cell phones and were tired while driving. An accident in the past year occurred in 25.7% of riders and was significantly higher in those who used cell phones while driving and in those who were interested in learning about motorcycle use. Adolescents who reported always motorcycling over the speed limit were at lower risk of smoking, talking with the passenger, and using a cell phone while driving. Being male, being older, learning about motorcycle use from someone outside the family, talking with a passenger, and using a cell phone while driving increased the risk of receiving a ticket. CONCLUSIONS: Educational programs, legislative measures, and policies to reduce risk behaviors in adolescents who use motorcycles are needed.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1997

Psychological and social predictors of motorcycle use by young adult males in New Zealand.

Motorcycle riding is a significant cause of serious injuries to young males. Little is known about the psychological and social characteristics of these riders, despite such knowledge being potentially important for the targeting of appropriate injury prevention interventions. Using problem-behaviour theory to broadly guide and structure the research, the present study focused on identifying predictors of motorcycle riding. Previous research investigating differences between riders and non-riders has tended to be inconclusive, methodologically limited, and lacking in explicit theoretical foundations. The present research was based on the birth cohort enrolled in the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study (DMHDS), a comprehensive New Zealand longitudinal study of health, development, attitudes, and behaviours. Logistic regression models were built using prior measures of health risk behaviour, other psychological and social factors, and motorcycle riding history as potential predictors of any motorcycle use at the age of 18 years. The strongest predictors were early motorcycle riding, including illegal on-road driving at age 13 (OR 4.0; 95% CI 1.7, 9.1), below average reading skills (OR 2.4; 95% CI 1.3, 4.6) and fighting in a public place at age 15 (OR 2.9; 95% CI 1.2, 6.9). It was of particular interest that this profile tended to fit less well those subgroups of riders with greatest exposure to on-road motorcycle driving. Although based on small numbers, this finding was consistent with earlier cross-sectional research that linked casual and unlicensed driving with less protective motorcycling opinions and behaviours. Some implications for injury prevention and public policies regarding motorcycling are discussed. In particular, stricter enforcement of present licensing regulations and stronger penalties for their violation could help to reduce the number of less responsible riders.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2003

Factors associated with severity of motorcycle injuries among young adult riders.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: A cohort of 4,729 junior college students in Taiwan was studied to determine risk factors for increased severity of motorcycle injuries. METHODS: Crash characteristics were collected by using self-administered questionnaires soon after a student was involved in a motorcycle crash. The proportional odds model with generalized estimating equations, with correlated ordinal responses for collisions categorized into not injured, mildly injured, and severely injured categories, was used to determine the odds of injury severity. RESULTS: A total of 1,889 motorcycle crashes involving 1,284 persons occurred over a 20-month period from November 1994 to June 1996. There were 1,339 noninjuries, 474 mild injuries, and 76 severe injuries. The adjusted odds ratio (OR) of rural to urban roads having a greater level of injury severity was 1.64. Compared with noncollisions, collisions with a moving car (adjusted OR=1.76), a parked car (adjusted OR 1.90), or another stationary object (adjusted OR=2.31) increased the odds for a greater level of injury severity. Riders using Sanyang (adjusted OR=1.63) and Yamaha (adjusted OR=1.39) motorcycles had greater odds of being involved in a crash with a greater level of injury compared with those riding Kymco motorcycles. Darkness (adjusted OR=1.65) and greater speeds (adjusted OR=1.63 to 4.69) also increased the odds of greater injury severity. CONCLUSION: At the time of motorcycle crashes, factors such as being on rural roads, collisions with a heavier object, some motorcycle makes, darkness, and greater speeds increased the severity of motorcycle injuries among these young adult riders.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2004

Outcome of motorcycle riders at one year post-injury.

OBJECTIVE: There is little information about the long-term effects of injury on victims of motorcycle crashes. Following the repeal of the mandatory helmet law in Florida, we studied the impact of crashes on riders and their outcomes one year post-injury. SUBJECTS: All patients involved in a motorcycle crash over a six-month time period were assessed at one year post-injury. Demographic information, health status, motorcycle and helmet usage, and employability were surveyed. RESULTS: There were 94 patients evaluated at our center for the first six-month period following the repeal of the helmet law, where 50 (56%) were wearing a helmet at the time of injury. Of the 94, we were able to contact 45 (48%) at one-year follow up. Fourteen (31%) of those contacted were not wearing a helmet at the time of their crash. At one year post-injury, 23 (51%) reported physical deficits, while 39 (86%) were working. Only 12 (27%) were riding a motorcycle again, and 11 (92%) were wearing a helmet. CONCLUSIONS: Motorcycle riders at one year post-injury continue to experience physical deficits related to their accidents. There is a small percentage of riders that resume riding a motorcycle after injury. Being involved in a motorcycle accident has deterred the injured rider from riding a motorcycle again at one year post-injury.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1989

[The strain on the rider's arms in straight-ahead motorcycle operation].

The causes of vibration hazards to motorcycle mail deliverers have been considered to be due to the vibrations from the motorcycle, strain on the rider's hands and arms, cold conditions, and duration of the operation and others, and the rider's muscle tone in handling the motorcycle rises as the stability of the motorcycle decreases. In this report, the steering angle and banking of the motorcycle, vibration on the handgrips and EMG on the rider's arms and shoulders were measured during motorcycle operation with weights placed on the front and rear carriers. The relationship between the stability of the motorcycle, vibration on the handgrips and strain on the rider's arms and shoulders measured by EMG are also discussed. The following results were obtained. 1. When weights were placed on the front and rear carriers, the motorcycle became unstable especially at low vehicle speed, and handling became difficult. 2. The acceleration levels of the vibrations on the left handgrip exceeded the 4-8 exposure guideline of ISO when the vehicle speed was 50 km/h with weights. 3. When the weights were placed on the front or rear carrier, the vibration levels on the left grip were generally larger than those without weights. 4. The differences in vibration acceleration levels or vibration levels by weights could not be determined. 5. The EMGs of the musculus extensor digitorum (arms) and musculus trapezius (shoulders) increases with increase of vehicle speed. 6. There were no obvious differences in the EMG on the rider's arm and shoulders under straight-ahead operation by weight loading combinations.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2003

Volatile organic profiles and photochemical potentials from motorcycle engine exhaust.

This study surveyed emissions from 2- and 4-stroke new and in-use motorcycles. Emission tests were carried out on a dynamometer following the designated test procedure of the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE). Samples were derived during various driving stages, which included idle, acceleration, 30 km/hr cruise, 50 km/hr cruise, and deceleration. All test motorcycles (10 new and 15 in-use) complied with Taiwan Environmental Protection Administration's Phase III Motorcycle Emission Standards. The dominant volatile organic carbon (VOC) species were isopentane (53 and 295 mg/km, 2- and 4-stroke, respectively), 2-methylpentane (75 and 83 mg/km), 3-methylpentane (34 and 66 mg/km), and toluene (30 and 100 mg/km). The VOC emission factors for the 2-/4-stroke motorcycles were 311/344 (new) and 1479/433 (in-use) mg/km, respectively. In addition, the dominant carbonyl species for the new and in-use motorcycles were formaldehyde (0.4 and 0.7 mg/km, respectively), acetaldehyde (0.6 and 1.2 mg/km), and acetone (0.5 and 0.7 mg/km). The carbonyl compound emission factors for the 2- and 4-stroke motorcycles were 3.2/3.1 (new) and 5.3/4.6 (in-use) mg/km, respectively. The ozone formation potentials, based on an ECE test cycle, show that the values from the in-use motorcycles were higher than those from the new motorcycles. The dominant VOC species for the ozone formation potential were propylene (65 and 502 mg-O3/km, respectively), isopentane (98 and 501 mg-O3/km), 2-methylpentane (152 and 167 mg-O3/ km), 3-methylpentane (79 and 253 mg-O3/km), and toluene (127 and 398 mg-O3/km). Further, the dominant carbonyl species were formaldehyde (4.1 and 6.2 mg-O3/ km, new and in-use, respectively) and acetaldehyde (4.8 and 9 mg-O3/km).

Air Pollutants↗

PubMed2006

Nonfatal injuries from off-road motorcycle riding among children and teens--United States, 2001-2004.

Motorcycle crashes are a substantial public health problem for children and teens. During 2003, among persons aged </=19 years, at least 245 died and an estimated 56,870 were treated in U.S. hospital emergency departments (EDs) for injuries sustained while riding a motorcycle. National surveillance has focused primarily on monitoring and characterizing fatal and nonfatal injuries from motorcycle crashes occurring on public roads. However, during 2003, at least 13 motorcycle riders aged </=19 years died in nontraffic incidents in places other than on public roads. This report focuses on injuries associated with off-road motorcycle riding, an increasingly popular recreational activity among youths. To characterize nonfatal injuries among young off-road motorcycle riders in the United States, CDC analyzed data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-All Injury Program (NEISS-AIP) during 2001-2004. Those data indicated that an estimated 23,800 off-road motorcyclists aged </=19 years were treated for nonfatal injuries in U.S. hospital EDs each year. Programs and policies directed at reducing the number of injuries from off-road motorcycle riding need to be strengthened; requiring minimum ages for off-road motorcycle riding might help prevent such injuries among children and teens.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Helmets, injuries and cultural definitions: motorcycle injury in urban Indonesia.

This paper examines motorcycle helmet use and injuries in a developing country with a helmet law. Data were collected by systematic street observations and interviews with motorcyclists and supplemented with motorcycle injury data from a 1 month study of all patients coming to emergency departments in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Observations show that 89% of motorcycle drivers (N = 9242) wore helmets; only 20% of the passengers (N = 3541) did. However, only 55% of the drivers wore helmets correctly (e.g. with chin strap buckled). Differences in time and place were noted in interviews when motorcyclists reported wearing helmets least at night and when no police were around; various reasons for not wearing helmets included physical discomfort and absence of police surveillance. Data from emergency departments found that motorcycles were involved in 64% of all traffic accident injuries, comprising 33% of total trauma patients presenting to emergency departments. Injury Severity Scores were calculated for the 26% of motorcycle injuries which were admitted to the hospital, with 60% having scores of 1-8, 27% 9-15, and 9% > 15. We conclude that although motorcycle drivers appear to comply with the motorcycle helmet law, it is a "token compliance." Less than 50% of riders were maximally protected by helmets and very little safety consciousness was found among drivers. Suggestions for improving helmet use that take cultural definitions of wearing helmets into account are presented for future research.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1996

The risky and protective motorcycling opinions and behaviours of young on-road motorcyclists in New Zealand.

This research documented the frequency of protective and risky motorcycling opinions and behaviours and investigated whether these opinions and behaviours were more frequently expressed by licensed than unlicensed riders and by riders with high rather than low exposure to motorcycling. Areas where there was scope for improvement were identified to help guide the promotion of protective strategies. As part of a broader study of a birth cohort, 217 18 year old motorcyclists were administered a motorcycling computer questionnaire. Evidence of positive protective opinions was found, but there was considerable scope for behavioural improvements. While 92% had worn a helmet, optimal protection was reported less frequently for other body areas: most often for the feet (54%), hands (47%) and upper body (35%) and least often for the legs (8%). Most (87%) riders considered conspicuity increased safety, 68% favoured mandatory day-time headlight use, and 66% used dipped headlights in day-time. While 55% favoured mandatory wearing of high-visibility clothing, only 15% of day-time and 20% of night-time riders reported doing this. During the past month, 16% had driven within two hours of drinking alcohol and 6% when too tired to be fully in control. Overall, 22% had been penalized for a motorcycle driving offence, most often speeding. While 46% said they agreed with the Graduated Driver Licensing System (GDLS), most licensed under that system reported breaking licence conditions and most were not apprehended. Licensed motorcyclists were significantly more likely than the unlicensed to favour mandatory day-time headlight usage, report using dipped headlights in day-time, and wear better protection for the head, upper body and hands, but were also more likely to report drinking and driving and traffic convictions--probably because of their greater exposure. Other, non-significant, results were in the same direction, except that fewer licensed than unlicensed riders were in favour of mandatory high visibility clothing or the GDLS. A similar pattern of more protective attitudes and behaviours was found for high rather than low exposure riders, though it was generally weaker, and high exposure was associated with drinking and driving, driving while tired and traffic convictions. The issues of representativeness and reliability are discussed and some implications for public policies towards motorcycling by young people are considered. Further research is recommended in order to determine which are the best predictors of motorcycling opinions and behaviours: personal characteristics, the formal training associated with licensure, or exposure to motorcycling.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2005

Identifying best practices states in motorcycle rider education and licensing.

PROBLEM: After decreasing to a historic low in 1997, motorcycle crash-related fatalities are increasing. Although causes remain unclear, motorcycle rider education and licensing play key roles in reducing motorcycle crashes and injuries. Yet, little is known about what constitutes effective rider training and licensing. This study develops a model of best practices in motorcycle rider education and licensing and combines primary and secondary data to identify states that most closely adhere to this model. Evidence on the validity of the model is also examined. METHOD: States were rated along three areas of best practices: (a) program administration; (b) rider education; and (c) licensing based on 2001 data collected for a National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)-sponsored study. RESULTS: Results indicate wide variation in states' adherence to best practices; several states meet most, others very few. When the areas of best practices are considered separately, a state tends to behave similarly on all three. Initial evidence supports the validity of the model, with high best practices states having the lowest rates of motorcycle fatalities. IMPACT ON TRAFFIC SAFETY: As motorcycle-related crashes increase and state and federal support for rider education programs diminishes, it is critical that states identify deficiencies in their program and learn from successful states about efficient, cost-effective strategies for increasing best practices in motorcycle rider education and licensing.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed2001

Helmet laws and motorcycle rider death rates.

We investigated motorcycle rider death rates between states with full motorcycle helmet laws and those without. This was done using both unadjusted bivariate analyses and multivariate random-effects generalized least squares regression models of rider death rates. Multivariate models were adjusted for the competing influences of several explanatory variables, including the existence of a motorcycle helmet law. From 1994 to 1996, states with helmet laws experienced a median death rate of 6.20 riders per 10000 registered motorcycles and states without helmet laws experienced a median death rate of 5.07 riders per 10000 registered motorcycles (P = 0.008). After controlling for other factors that affect motorcycle rider fatalities (most notably population density and temperature), death rates in states with full helmet laws were shown to be lower on average than deaths rates in states without full helmet laws (P = 0.740). Our study weakens the claim that rider death rates are significantly lower in states without full motorcycle helmet laws.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1998

A method to reduce response times in prehospital care: the motorcycle experience.

This study compared the response times of a motorcycle and a standard ambulance in a congested urban emergency medical services (EMS) setting. The study was performed in Taipei, Taiwan, a densely populated urban area. A basic life support (BLS) motorcycle (without defibrillation capability) and an advanced life support (ALS) ambulance were based at three study hospitals and simultaneously dispatched when there was a perceived need for ALS ambulance transport. Over a 3-month period, prehospital personnel evaluated 307 medical and trauma emergencies. Time data were insufficient for analysis in 33 cases, leaving a study population of 274. Response times of the motorcycle and the ambulance were prospectively assessed and compared. During rush hours, the response times of the motorcycle and ambulance were 4.9+/-3.0 minutes and 6.3+/-3.4 minutes (P < .05), respectively, and in non-rush hours, 4.2+/-2.1 minutes and 5.1+/-2.5 minutes (P < .05), respectively. Using motorcycles to transport EMTs to the emergency scene significantly reduced response time compared with a standard ambulance in a congested urban setting. Large prospective studies are required to determine the impact on patient outcome of shorter EMS response times using motorcycles. EMS motorcycles appear feasible and deserve consideration to help expedite prehospital care in other systems in densely populated cities.

Ambulances↗

PubMed2002

Most head injury related motorcycle crash deaths are related to poor riding practices.

OBJECTIVE: To report the characteristics of head injury related motorcycle crash deaths. METHODS: Motorcycle crash deaths with head injury (Abbreviated Injury Severity score > or = 2) between 1 January 1998 and 31 December 1999 were identified from the Western Australia State Coronial Database. Demographics, incident and death locations, type of incident and role of unsafe riding behaviour were examined. RESULTS: There were 39 deaths analysed (35 motorcycle riders and four pillion passengers). The median age was 29 years (range 9-64 years), with 22 deaths (56.4%) in the range 15-29 years and 92.3% of those killed being male. Twenty-one motorcycle crashes were single-vehicle crashes (53.8%). There were 25 deaths at scene (64.1%). Ethanol was implicated in 12 cases (30.8%) and other drugs were implicated in 11 cases (28.2%). Speeding was implicated in 12 cases (30.8%) and a lack of appropriate safety equipment was implicated in five cases (12.8%). One or more of the unsafe practices above was identified in 23 cases (59%). Overall, there was no difference in the rate of unsafe practices in single-vehicle incidents compared with incidents involving another vehicle (P = 0.342). Ethanol was associated with 10 single motorcycle incidents (47.6%) compared with two (11.1%) involving another vehicle (P = 0.018). Unsafe practices were involved in 76% of at-scene deaths, compared with 28.6% in those surviving to hospital (P = 0.007). CONCLUSION: A large proportion of head injury related motorcycle crash deaths are related to the unsafe behaviour of motorcyclists. A preventative campaign focusing on young male motorcycle riders and unsafe driving behaviour may reduce this death toll.

Accident Prevention↗

PubMed2003

Motorcycle casualties sustained during Daytona Beach Bike Week 2000: lessons learned.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: In March 2000, an estimated 500,000 people attended an annual motorcycle rally in Daytona Beach, FL, where approximately 64,000 residents live year-round. The media reported 15 deaths during this 10-day event. To more comprehensively assess the extent of trauma and need for emergency medical care, we investigated all motorcycle crashes, regardless of outcome. METHODS: Motorcycle-related crash data from local medical examiner, hospital, emergency medical services (EMS), and police sources were linked. Frequencies of crashes, injuries, hospitalizations, and deaths were determined, and EMS use data were analyzed. RESULTS: During Bike Week 2000, 570 people were involved in 281 motorcycle-related crashes. Two hundred thirty (40%) people were injured, of which 147 (64%) sought treatment in emergency departments, 72 (31%) were hospitalized, and 11 (5%) died. In crashes between motorcycles and passenger cars, individuals exposed as motorcycle occupants were 8.7 times more likely to be injured than car occupants (95% confidence limit 1.7, 15.7). Of 205 EMS dispatches for motorcycle-related crashes, two thirds resulted in transport to an ED. Data needed to assess known risk factors (eg, alcohol use, speed, lack of helmet use) were not routinely ascertained at either the crash site or ED. CONCLUSION: Although fatalities first called attention to the problem, nonfatal injuries outnumbered deaths 20:1. The manpower resources of civil service and health resources could become overwhelmed or exhausted in circumstances in which many people are injured or killed throughout a relatively long period. The situation deserves future study. Better risk factor surveillance is needed to help prevent crashes.

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1997

The Colorado motorcycle safety survey: public attitudes and beliefs.

BACKGROUND: Motorcycle riders have a high risk of traumatic brain injury, disability, and death. Epidemiologic studies have proven that helmets reduce the severity of brain injuries and the cost of care. Yet, Colorado remains one of three states with no helmet law for riders. OBJECTIVES: This study measured public support for (1) a mandatory motorcycle helmet use law and (2) mandatory motorcycle operator safety training. We also sought to ascertain citizens' attitudes toward traffic safety mandates from the federal government. METHODS: Structured telephone interviews were conducted with 407 Colorado adults selected by random-digit dialing. RESULTS: Sixty-five percent of respondents believed that motorcycle riders of all ages should be required to wear helmets. An additional 18% believed that only riders under age 21 should be required to wear helmets. Only 17% of respondents opposed all helmet laws. Even among motorcyclists, most supported helmet laws for all riders (47%) or for those <21 years of age (26%). In a multiple logistic regression, there were three significant independent predictors of a pro-helmet law stance: older age, female gender, and not possessing a motorcycle operator's license. Most respondents also supported mandatory motorcycle operator safety training. Despite supporting state helmet use regulations, a large proportion (41%) opposed mandatory Federal mandates to enact them. CONCLUSION: Even in Colorado, a state with no helmet use requirements, there is strong public support for a regulatory strategy of motorcycle helmet use laws.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Motorcycle accident risk could be inflated by a time to arrival illusion.

PURPOSE: Drivers adopt smaller safety margins when pulling out in front of motorcycles compared with cars. This could partly account for why the most common motorcycle/car accident involves a car violating a motorcyclist's right of way. One possible explanation is the size-arrival effect in which smaller objects are perceived to arrive later than larger objects. That is, drivers may estimate the time to arrival of motorcycles to be later than cars because motorcycles are smaller. METHODS: We investigated arrival time judgments using a temporal occlusion paradigm. Drivers recruited from the student population (n = 28 and n = 33) saw video footage of oncoming vehicles and had to press a response button when they judged that vehicles would reach them. RESULTS: In experiment 1, the time to arrival of motorcycles was estimated to be significantly later than larger vehicles (a car and a van) for different approach speeds and viewing times. In experiment 2, we investigated an alternative explanation to the size-arrival effect: that the smaller size of motorcycles places them below the threshold needed for observers to make an accurate time to arrival judgment using tau. We found that the motorcycle/car difference in arrival time estimates was maintained for very short occlusion durations when tau could be estimated for both motorcycles and cars. CONCLUSIONS: Results are consistent with the size-arrival effect and are inconsistent with the tau threshold explanation. Drivers estimate motorcycles will reach them later than cars across a range of conditions. This could have safety implications.

Accidents, Traffic↗