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PubMed1994

Inhibition of anticipatory salivation and craving in response to food stimuli.

Two experiments were done to study inhibition of cue-dependent salivation and craving responses. Experiment 1 suggests that total prevention of tasting during cue exposure inhibits salivation responses to chocolate cues. On the other hand, salivation was triggered by chocolate cues after tasting a very small amount of chocolate, indicating a very robust and rapid learning of conditioned salivation responses. However, prevention of tasting during cue exposure did not affect craving, suggesting that this method cannot decrease craving or that craving is affected at different rate than salivation. Experiment 2 tested the hypothesis that tasting irrelevant food during repeated exposure to chocolate cues would inhibit anticipatory salivation and craving responses to these cues. No support for this hypothesis was observed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Salivation mediated by central M-2 muscarinic receptors in the cat.

In these experiments the effect on the cat's salivation of the choline ester, carbachol, the anticholinesterase, eserine, and the muscarinic ganglionic stimulants, McN-A-343 and AHR-602, injected into the cerebral ventricles was investigated and compared. Carbachol and eserine injected intracerebroventricularly (ICV) produced dose-related salivation. On the other hand, ICV McN-A-343 and AHR-602 evoked inconsistent salivation when injected in large doses. The antimuscarinic drug, atropine, injected into the cerebral ventricles abolished the salivation caused by carbachol and eserine similarly injected. However, salivation induced by ICV carbachol and eserine was not significantly altered by the ganglionic blocking agent, mecamylamine, injected into the cerebral ventricles. It is concluded that the ICV injection of carbachol and eserine evokes salivation in the cat by way of an action on central M-2 muscarinic receptors.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

Nature of salivation produced by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).

In the unanesthetized cat, TRH was injected into the cerebral ventricles (ICV) through chronically implanted cannulae and the nature of the evoked salivation was investigated. TRH injected in doses from 0.1 to 1.0 mg evoked salivation which was not dose-dependent. The antimuscarinic drug atropine as well as the ganglionic blocking agent mecamylamine injected also ICV prevented the salivation induced by ICV TRH. On the other hand, virtually no effect on the TRH-salivation was induced by the following drugs injected ICV: alpha and the beta adrenergic blocking agents, yohimbine and propranolol; dopamine antagonist, chlorpromazine; 5-hydroxytryptamine antagonist, methysergide; and the antihistamine, antazoline. Further, in cats pretreated with ICV reserpine and 6-hydroxydopamine, but not with ICV 5,6-dihydroxytryptamine and hemicholinium, the salivation caused by ICV TRH was abolished. It is concluded that central cholinoceptive and catecholaminergic mechanisms are involved in the salivation induced by ICV TRH.

5,6-Dihydroxytryptamine↗

PubMed2006

Effects of cevimeline on salivation and thirst in conscious rats.

OBJECTIVE: Intraperitoneal injection of a sialogogue, pilocarpine, at high concentrations induces salivation via peripheral pathways and thirst sensation via central pathways. In this study, we report that the effects of another sialagogue, cevimeline, on salivation and water intake in conscious rats differ from those of pilocarpine. DESIGN: We investigated that effects of peripherally and centrally injected cevimeline on parotid saliva flow rate and water intake in conscious rats. The results were compared with those of pilocarpine. RESULTS: The intraperitoneal injection of cevimeline induced salivation from the parotid gland, but not water intake. In contrast, the intracerebroventricular injection of cevimeline induced water intake without salivation. The concentration of cevimeline needed to induce salivation by intraperitoneal injection was several 10 times that of pilocarpine, but that needed to induce water intake by intracerebroventricular injection was over a 1000 times greater. CONCLUSIONS: The finding that intraperitoneally injected cevimeline induces salivation without inducing water intake, suggests that the effects on the thirst center in the brain are weaker than those of pilocarpine.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Sympathetic mediation of salivation induced by intracerebroventricular pilocarpine in rats.

Central cholinergic activation by pilocarpine induces salivation dependent on the integrity of forebrain areas. The present work investigates the autonomic mediation of this salivation. Pilocarpine (500 nmol/rat) was injected into the lateral ventricle (LV) of tribromoethanol-anesthetized adult male rats. Preweighed cotton balls were inserted into the oral cavity and weighed again 7 min later. Alpha-adrenoceptor antagonists (3-50 micromol/kg) prazosin (alpha1), yohimbine (alpha2) or propranolol (beta) injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) produced, 80%, 20% and 0% inhibition respectively of the LV pilocarpine-induced salivation. Intracerebroventricular injections (160 nmol) of the antagonists did not alter the effects of pilocarpine injected into the LV. Bilateral section of chorda tympani nerve or bilateral sympathetic cervical ganglionectomy produced 0% and 40% inhibition of pilocarpine-induced salivation, respectively. Ganglionectomy did not alter salivation induced by i.p. injection of pilocarpine (4 micromol/kg). The results indicate that there is a large sympathetic contribution to the salivation induced by central cholinergic activation.

Adrenergic Antagonists↗

PubMed2002

Lesions of the lateral hypothalamus impair pilocarpine-induced salivation in rats.

In the present study we investigated the effects of electrolytic lesions of the lateral hypothalamus (LH) in the salivation induced by intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) or intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of the cholinergic agonist pilocarpine. Rats with sham or LH lesions and stainless steel cannulas implanted into the lateral ventricle (LV) were used. In rats anesthetized with urethane (1.25mg/kg of body weight) saliva was collected using pre-weighed cotton balls inserted in the animal mouth during a period of 7 min following i.c.v. or i.p. injection of pilocarpine. Injection of pilocarpine (1mg/kg of body weight) i.p. in sham-operated rats (6h, 2, 7, and 15 days after the surgery) induced salivation (497+/-24, 452+/-26, 476+/-30, and 560+/-75 mg/7 min, respectively). The effects of i.p. pilocarpine was reduced 6h, 2 and 7 days after LH lesions (162+/-37, 190+/-32, and 229+/-27 mg/7 min, respectively), not 15 days after LH lesions (416+/-89 mg/7 min). Injection of pilocarpine (120 micro g/micro l) i.c.v., in sham-operated rats (6h, 2, 7, and 15 days after the surgery) also produced salivation (473+/-20, 382+/-16, 396+/-14, and 427+/-47 mg/7 min, respectively). The salivation induced by i.c.v. pilocarpine was also reduced 6h, 2 and 7 days after LH lesions (243+/-19, 278+/-24, and 295+/-27 mg/7 min, respectively), not 15 days after LH lesions (385+/-48 mg/7 min). The present results show the participation of the LH in the salivation induced by central or peripheral injection of pilocarpine in rats, reinforcing the involvement of central mechanisms on pilocarpine-induced salivation.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Moxonidine reduces pilocarpine-induced salivation in rats.

Cholinergic agonists activate salivation and the alpha2-adrenergic and imidazoline receptor agonists induce opposite effects. In the present study, we investigated the effects of intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) or intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of moxonidine (an alpha2-adrenergic and imidazoline receptor agonist) on the salivation induced by the cholinergic agonist pilocarpine. Male Holtzman rats with stainless steel cannula implanted into the lateral ventricle (LV) were used. In rats anesthetized with tribromoethanol (200 mg kg(-1), saliva was collected using pre-weighed small cotton balls inserted in the animal's mouth. The treatment with moxonidine (5, 10 and 20 nmol in 1 microl) injected i.c.v. reduced the salivation induced by pilocarpine (1 mg kg(-1)) injected i.p. (48 +/- 5, 17 +/- 2 and 15 +/- 2 mg min(-1) vs. control, 73 +/- 7 mg min(-1)). The same doses of moxonidine injected i.c.v. also reduced the salivary secretion induced by pilocarpine (500 nmol in 1 microl) injected i.c.v. (44 +/- 1, 14 +/- 2 and 20 +/- 3 mg min(-1) vs. control, 51 +/- 2 mg min(-1)). Injection of moxonidine (20 nmol in 0.1 ml) i.p. produced no change on i.p. pilocarpine-induced salivation (58 +/- 4 mg min(-1) vs. control, 50 +/- 4 mg min(-1)). The results show that central, but not peripheral, injection of moxonidine inhibits pilocarpine-induced salivation, suggesting that central mechanisms activated by alpha2-adrenergic/imidazoline agonists inhibit cholinergic-induced salivation in rats.

Animals↗

PubMed1984

Salivation after single-doses of the new antidepressants femoxetine, mianserin and citalopram. A cross-over study.

Twelve healthy volunteers were given oral single doses of a reference drug (nortriptyline), test drugs, and placebo on a randomised single-blind basis at weekly intervals. The doses corresponded to average daily patient medication. Spontaneous whole mouth salivation was measured before (at 10 p.m.) and 10 hours after drug administration (at 8 a.m.). Drug plasma levels were determined after 4 and 10 hours. When analysing the salivations 10 hours after drug administration adjusted for the effects of the pre-treatment salivations, statistically significant inhibition of salivation was found after nortriptyline (56%), femoxetine (34%), and mianserin (29%) when compared with placebo, while for citalopram and cis- and trans-flupenthixol no significant inhibition of salivation was demonstrated (Fig. 1, Table 5). From the estimated log linear regression coefficients, relating adjusted salivation rates and drug plasma levels 10 hours after drug administration (Table 6), and reported average steady-state plasma drug levels (Table 7), semiquantitative predictions of the average level of anticholinergic activity during long-term treatment may be made: For femoxetine and mianserin, moderate anticholinergic activity, less pronounced than with nortriptyline, are predicted, while for citalopram no such activity can be predicted (Table 7).

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Central muscarinic receptors signal pilocarpine-induced salivation.

Although cholinergic agonists such as pilocarpine injected peripherally can act directly on salivary glands to induce salivation, it is possible that their action in the brain may contribute to salivation. To investigate if the action in the brain is important to salivation, we injected pilocarpine intraperitoneally after blockade of central cholinergic receptors with atropine methyl bromide (atropine-mb). In male Holtzman rats with stainless steel cannulas implanted into the lateral ventricle and anesthetized with ketamine, atropine-mb (8 and 16 nmol) intracerebroventricularly reduced the salivation induced by pilocarpine (4 micro mol/kg) intraperitoneally (133 + 42 and 108 + 22 mg/7 min, respectively, vs. saline, 463 + 26 mg/7 min), but did not modify peripheral cardiovascular responses to intravenous acetylcholine. Similar doses of atropine-mb intraperitoneally also reduced pilocarpine-induced salivation. Therefore, systemically injected pilocarpine also enters the brain and acts on central muscarinic receptors, activating autonomic efferent fibers to induce salivation.

Acetylcholine↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The inhibitory effect of guanabenz on submandibulary salivation induced by chorda tympani stimulation in anaesthetized cat.

The actions of guanabenz, an alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonist, on submandibulary salivation were examined in the anaesthetized cat. Guanabenz reduces submandibulary salivation evoked by electrical stimulation of the chorda tympani in dose and frequency dependent manner. This effect was antagonized by yohimbine but not by prazosin. Guanabenz increased salivation elicited by intraarterial injection of carbachol. This potentiated effect was suppressed by yohimbine, but not by prazosin. On noradrenaline induced salivation guanabenz has no effect, while prazosin virtually abolished it, indicating involvement of alpha 1-adrenoceptors. It appears that guanabenz reduces peripheral parasympathetically evoked submandibulary salivation influencing the presynaptic control of transmitter release alpha 2-adrenoceptors. Postsynaptic alpha 2-adrenoceptors are not involved in the inhibition of salivation by this agent.

Anesthesia↗

PubMed1995

[Standardization and evaluation of a manual salivation method for the detection of Trypanosoma infection in the tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidae)].

Two methods of salivation of tsetse flies, namely manual salivation and method of Bruce et al. were simultaneously evaluated on 1,702 male uninfected Glossina palpalis palpalis (Zaire), G. palpalis gambiensis (Bobo-Dioulasso), G. p. gambiensis (Maisons-Alfort) et G. morsitans morsitans (Mall) fasted for 23, 48 and 72 hours. The risk of salivation was 0.66 by the manual method and 0.01 by the method of Bruce et al. The manual salivation method was standardised on 79 male G. m. morsitans (Mall) infected with Trypanosoma congolense IL 1180. By this method, 70.88% of flies carrying mature and/or immature infection were identified. A clear difference was observed in the proportion of tsetse flies which salivated after 72 hours and those which salivated after 48 and 24 hours of fasting.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

The effect of subjective and physiological arousal on dishabituation of salivation.

We have previously shown that salivation to the same food habituates, and recovers after presenting novel nontaste stimuli. This study assessed the effects of environmental stimuli that differentially influence subjective and autonomic arousal on dishabituation of salivation. Thirty female subjects were preloaded on a lemon yogurt milkshake and habituated to seven presentations of lemon juice. Prior to the eighth presentation of juice, subjects were presented an engaging video game designed to produce subjective but no autonomic arousal (LO), a video game plus mental arithmetic stressor, designed to produce both subjective and physiological arousal (HI), or a no stimuli (REST) control. Significant dishabituating effects of HI versus REST were shown for salivation. Heart rate was significantly higher during the dishabituator for HI than LO or REST conditions, which were equal. Finally, significant differences in arousal were shown between each of the three conditions. These results show salivation can be differentially dishabituated by nonfood stimuli, and these stimuli influence salivation without influencing subjective hunger or hedonics.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Habituation and recovery of salivation and motivated responding for food in children.

Salivary responses habituate to repeated presentations of food cues, and these responses recover when new food stimuli are presented. Research suggests that within-session changes in motivated responding for food may also habituate, and motivated responding may, therefore, recover when new foods are presented. The purpose of this study was to evaluate similarities in the pattern of salivation and motivated responding for a cheeseburger stimulus in children, followed by either a novel stimulus (French fries) or another cheeseburger trial. The order of the task (salivation or motivation) was counterbalanced over days. Salivation and motivated responding for cheeseburger were reliably reduced over seven trials, and responses recovered after presentation of French fries on trial 8. Random regression models showed a significant relationship between the rate of change in motivated responding and salivation. These results provide additional support for similarities in processes that regulate salivation and motivated responding for food and strengthen support for the hypothesis that changes in motivated responding can be understood by habituation theory.

Child↗

PubMed1998

Differences in thermal salivation between the FOK rat (a model of genotypic heat adaptation) and three other rat strains.

Rats secrete saliva in response to heat. In the present study, details of thermal salivation were investigated using the FOK rat in comparison with Sprague-Dawley (SD), Donryu, and ACI rats. The FOK rat is a strain inbred for genotypic heat adaptation and endures heat for long periods. Conscious rats of all four strains were exposed to 42.5 degrees C. The order of heat endurance times at this temperature was FOK >> SD > Donryu = ACI. FOK rats spread their saliva over their entire ventral surface, their faces, and their outside legs. This saliva area was wider than those made by the other three strains. SD rats spread in an area wider than those of the Donryu and ACI rats. Saliva spreading in the FOK rats continued for 4.0-4.5 h, far longer than in the other strains. Under ketamine anesthesia and exposure to 40 degrees C, the FOK rats secreted saliva at 1390+/-235 microL/100 g of body weight during a 60-min observation period. This was the highest rate among the four rat strains (p < 0.0001). The body temperature increase rate in anesthetized FOK and SD rats was lower than in the other two strains, suggesting a minor contribution of unknown factors. Ligation of the submandibular gland ducts abolished the thermal salivation of the FOK rats, whereas ligation of the parotid duct had no effect. The submandibular, sublingual, and lachrymal glands in the FOK rats were 1.3-1.5, 1.25-1.4, and 1.3-1.5 times heavier, respectively, than those in the other three strains, whereas the parotid gland of the FOK rats was not enlarged. These findings indicate that the rats' saliva spreading and ET values are significantly correlated. A potentiated and long-lasting salivation from the submandibular gland was acquired during development of genotypic heat adaptation. This salivation is actuated in response to heat. The pronounced thermal salivation is probably attributable to adaptive changes in the superior salivatory nucleus-chorda tympani-submandibular gland pathway.

Acclimatization↗

PubMed1986

Autonomic mechanisms underlying capsaicin induced oral sensations and salivation in man.

The effects of capsaicin, citric acid and nicotine applied to the apex or radix of the tongue on taste sensations and salivation were studied in relation to the presence of substance P immunoreactive neurones in man. Application of capsaicin (30 micron) to the apex of the tongue or to the palatinal mucosa, but not to the radix of the tongue, caused a reproducible burning sensation and salivation from the submandibular-sublingual and parotid glands. The salivation response to capsaicin was reduced by methylscopolamine pretreatment. Similar levels of substance P immunoreactivity were present in the lingual apex and radix area (including vallate papillae) of man, while in the cat about 4 times higher levels of substance P immunoreactivity were present in the vallate papillae than in the lingual apex. Immunohistochemistry showed that in the cat many substance P immunoreactive nerves were associated with the taste buds of the vallate papillae, while in man substance P immunoreactive fibres were only seen penetrating into the epithelium of the lingual apex. In addition some subepithelial blood vessels in all regions were surrounded by substance P immunoreactive nerves in both cat and man. Citric acid application to the tongue apex caused both submandibular-sublingual and parotid salivary secretion concomitant with a burning sensation. Salivary secretion was also seen after citric acid application to the radix of the tongue. This response was associated with a sour taste. The salivation response to citric acid was not significantly reduced by methylscopolamine pretreatment. Lingual apex application of nicotine was associated with a sweet taste and a small rise in salivary secretion rate. This response was not significantly reduced by methylscopolamine. In conclusion, the sensitivity to capsaicin of the human tongue is restricted to the apex portion. This is in parallel with the occurrence of intraepithelial substance P immunoreactive nerve fibres. Capsaicin induced salivary secretion seems mainly to be mediated via parasympathetic, cholinergic reflex mechanisms. Citric acid and nicotine induced salivation responses are comparatively more resistant to methylscopolamine pretreatment.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Eating and resting salivation in early lactation dairy cows.

Salivation rates were measured by cardial collection in four ruminally fistulated, early lactation cows. Complete diets of 70% concentrate: 30% hay crop silage (dry matter) or an isonitrogenous, isocaloric mixture of 60% concentrate: 40% corn silage were fed ad libitum once daily in a replicated 2 X 2 Latin square design. Thirty-day periods, beginning 2 d postpartum, consisted of 22 d adaptation and 8 d for determination of eating behavior, eating and resting salivation rates, and rumen liquid turnover rate. Diet did not affect eating behavior, salivation rates, saliva volumes produced while eating or resting, or saliva composition, but degree of feed ensalivation (fresh basis) and volume of saliva per bolus were higher for the hay crop silage diet due to its higher dry matter content. Resting salivation rate and volume produced while resting were greater at wk 8 than wk 4 of lactation even when corrected to constant dry matter intake, indicating that adaptation to diet postpartum involved increased basal resting salivation rate. Rumen pH was lower for the hay crop silage diet, but rumen fluid kinetic measurements did not differ with diet or week of lactation.

Animal Feed↗

PubMed2001

[A case with left mesial temporal lobe epilepsy characterized by abnormal massive salivation].

A 26-year-old woman was admitted because of a 12-year history of intractable epileptic seizures. Every seizure began with an upper abdominal discomfort, and often followed by massive salivation. Whenever the epileptic salivation happened, the patient lost consciousness, and sometimes she developed generalized convulsions. In terictal sphenoidal EEG recordings revealed abnormal discharges in the left mesial temporal region. MRI demonstrated left hippocampal atrophy. Since her seizures were medically intractable, left temporal lobectomy was performed. Neuropathologic examination revealed hippocampal sclerosis. After the operation, she became completely seizure-free with no episode of massive salivation. From the literature, epileptic salivation can originates from the rolandic area; fronto-orbital cortex & cingulate gyrus; insula & operculum; and mesial temporal structures. The abnormal massive salivation in our patient might be attributable to the activation of frontal limbic system triggered by hippocampal abnormal firing during the ictal period of TLE.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Inter-organ relation between salivary gland and kidney in lithium excretion. II. Salivary, renal and systemic clearances of lithium under continuous stimulation of salivation in water loaded dogs.

This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of water loading on lithium clearance in dogs under the continuous stimulation of salivation as well as to clarify the mechanism of the inter-organ relation between salivary gland and kidney in lithium excretion. Dogs were given intravenously 0.145 meq/kg of lithium chloride followed by the continuous stimulation of salivation with citric acid solution. Fifty ml of water was loaded orally 7 times at 1-h intervals. Parotid and mandibular-sublingual salivas were collected separately by means of permanent fistulae. (1) Plasma concentrations of lithium were not significantly different from either those in the experiment with continuous stimulation under no water loading or those in the control experiment without continuous stimulation. (2) Salivary clearance of lithium was markedly increased compared with that in the control experiment. The urinary flow rate, which was decreased under the continuous stimulation of salivation without water loading, was restored by the water loading. The renal clearance of lithium, which was also decreased under the continuous stimulation, remained at the reduced level under the condition of this study. Consequently, the systemic clearance of lithium did not change from that in the experiment under the continuous stimulation without water loading or that in the control experiment. (3) It was suggested that the salivary and renal excretion mechanisms of lithium might be similar to those of potassium, since a similar interrelation between salivary and renal clearances was observed for potassium. (4) It was suggested that the reduction in the renal clearance of lithium under the continuous stimulation of salivation was attributed to the sodium loss caused by the excessive salivation.

Animals↗