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PubMed2003

Development and validation of skinfold-thickness prediction equations with a 4-compartment model.

BACKGROUND: Skinfold-thickness measurements are commonly obtained for the indirect assessment of body composition. OBJECTIVE: We developed new skinfold-thickness equations by using a 4-compartment model as the reference. Additionally, we compared our new equations with the Durnin and Womersley and Jackson and Pollock skinfold-thickness equations to evaluate each equation's validity and precision. DESIGN: Data from 681 healthy, white adults were used. Percentage body fat (%BF) values were calculated by using the 4-compartment model. The cohort was then divided into validation and cross-validation groups. Equations were developed by using regression analyses and the 4-compartment model. All equations were then tested by using the cross-validation group. Tests for accuracy included mean differences, R(2), and Bland-Altman plots. Precision was evaluated by comparing root mean squared errors. RESULTS: Our new equations' estimated means for %BF in men and women (22.7% and 32.6%, respectively) were closest to the corresponding 4-compartment values (22.8% and 32.8%). The Durnin and Womersley equation means in men and women (20.0% and 31.0%, respectively) and the Jackson and Pollock mean in women (26.2%) underestimated %BF. All equations showed a tendency toward underestimation in subjects with higher %BF. Bland-Altman plots showed limited agreement between Durnin and Wormersley, Jackson and Pollock, and the 4-compartment model. Precision was similar among all the equations. CONCLUSIONS: We developed accurate and precise skinfold-thickness equations by using a 4-compartment model as the method of reference. Additionally, we found that the skinfold-thickness equations frequently used by clinicians and practitioners underestimate %BF.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1981

Changes in skinfold thickness with increasing age.

Skinfold thickness measurements on 626 normal subjects of both sexes between the ages of 5 months and 73 years demonstrated a tri-phasic relationship between loss of skin thickness and age. Measurements for infants of either sex were indistinguishable and high, falling rapidly to levels which only changed slightly over the period 20-60 years. Thereafter, massive loss of skin-thickness occurred in both sexes. Throughout the major portion of adult life the values obtained for females were significantly lower than those for males. It is suggested that the three phases may be associated with progressive dehydration, failure to synthesize collagen and frank degradation of the collagen of the dermis.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Estimating body fat in African American and white adolescent girls: a comparison of skinfold-thickness equations with a 4-compartment criterion model.

BACKGROUND: Although skinfold-thickness equations are widely used to estimate body fat, their accuracy in a biracial population of female adolescents has not been established. OBJECTIVE: We undertook this study to determine the agreement between 8 widely used skinfold-thickness equations and a 4-compartment criterion model in predicting the percentage body fat of 72 white and 40 African American girls aged 13.0 +/- 1.9 y. DESIGN: The biceps, triceps, suprailiac, subscapular, thigh, calf, and abdominal skinfold thicknesses of the subjects were measured with skinfold calipers and the buttocks circumference with a metal tape. The percentage fat mass (%FM) predicted by using each skinfold-thickness equation was compared with the criterion value calculated by the 4-compartment model on the basis of measurements of body density, body water, and bone mineral content. RESULTS: When the racial groups were analyzed separately, the Bland-Altman analysis indicated that the quadratic equations agreed most closely with the 4-compartment model's measurement of %FM. Agreement of the other equations varied with body fatness. CONCLUSIONS: The quadratic equation of Slaughter et al is recommended for population studies in female adolescents because of its accuracy and simplicity. However, an individual %FM can be over- or underestimated by approximately 10% when this skinfold-thickness equation is used.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1995

[Hydrostatic weighing, skinfold thickness, body mass index relationships in high school girls].

A study was conducted to evaluate body composition by hydrostatic weighing, skinfold thickness, and body mass index (BMI) in 102 senior high school girls, aged 15 to 18 in Nagasaki City. Body density measured by the underwater weighing method, was used to determine the fat weight (Fat) and lean body mass (LBM. or fat free weight: FFW) utilizing the formulas by Brozek et al. The results were as follows; 1. Mean values of body density were 1.04428 in the first grade girls, 1.04182 in the second grade, and 1.04185 in the third grade. 2. Mean values of percentage body fat (%Fat) were 23.5% in the first grade, 24.5% in the second and 24.5% in the third. 3. Percentage body fat (%Fat), lean body mass (LBM) and LBM/Height were not significantly with different advance of grade from the first to the third. 4. The correlation coefficients between percent body fat and the sum of two skinfold thicknesses, the sum of three skinfold thicknesses and the sum of seven skinfold thicknesses was 0.78, 0.79, and 0.80 respectively and were all statistically significant (p < 0.001). 5. The correlation coefficients between BMI and the sum of two skinfold thicknesses, the sum of three skinfold thicknesses and the sum of seven skinfold thicknesses was 0.74, 0.74, and 0.74 respectively and were all statistically significant (p < 0.001). 6. Mean values of BMI, Rohrer index and waist-hip ratio (WHR) in all subjects (n = 102) were 20.3, 128.2 and 0.72 respectively.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Effect of skinfold thickness on transcutaneous bilirubin measurements.

We studied the effect of skinfold thickness on the correlation between serum total bilirubin level and transcutaneous bilirubin (TcB) readings. Skinfold thickness measurements were taken at 1-4 h of age. Serum total bilirubin levels and TcB readings were obtained at 1-4 (first) and 44-56 h of age (discharge). No correlation was found between first reading and skinfold thickness (rho = -0.196), whereas correlations with first serum bilirubin level and blood hematocrit were 0.397 and -0.373, respectively. The correlation between discharge serum total bilirubin level and TcB reading was affected by skinfold thickness, and not improved with the use of first reading as a reference for discharge reading.

Bilirubin↗

PubMed1993

[Body composition (densitometry-hydrostatics), skinfold thickness, BMI and their relationships in junior high school girls].

A study was conducted to evaluate body composition (Hydrostatics = Under-Water Weighing), skinfold thickness, and BMI in 97 junior high school girls, aged 12 to 15, in Nagasaki City. Body density was measured by under-water weighing, and the two compartments--fat weight (Fat) and lean body mass (LBM, or fat free weight: FFW)--were calculated using the formulas of Brozek et al. The results were as follows; 1. Mean values of body density were 1.0501 in first grade girls, 1.0476 in the second grade, and 1.0466 in the third grade. 2. Mean values of percentage body fat (% Fat) were 21.1% in the first grade, 22.1% in the second and 22.5% in the third. 3. Lean body mass (LBM) and LBM/Height increased significantly with advance from the first to the third grade. 4. The correlation coefficient between percent body fat and the sum of two skinfold thicknesses, the sum of three skinfold thicknesses, or the sum of seven skinfold thicknesses were 0.81, 0.80, and 0.82 respectively and all statistically significant (p < 0.001). 5. The correlation coefficient between BMI and the sum of two skinfold thicknesses, the sum of three skinfold thicknesses (r = 0.841) or the sum of seven skinfold thicknesses were 0.85, 0.84, and 0.84 respectively, and all statistically significant (p < 0.001). 6. Mean values of BMI, WSR, ASR, and WHR in all subjects (n = 97) were 19.6, 0.72, 0.39 and 0.43 respectively.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Birthweight: its relationship with maternal and newborn skinfold thickness.

Two hundred and forty seven pregnant women at term and their offsprings were studied. Maternal skinfold thickness was measured from ten different sites and newborn skinfold thickness was measured from four different sites in each set of cases. Maternal skinfold thickness was positively correlated with the birthweight and skinfold thickness of the offspring. The birthweight was also positively correlated with the skinfold thickness of offspring. The maternal axillary sites and offspring's subscapular site had higher inter correlation as well as with the birthweight of offspring.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed2006

The determination of subcutaneous body fat percentage by measuring skinfold thickness in teenagers in Turkey.

Our aim in this study was to determine the body fat percentage of teenagers in Diyarbakir, a city in southeast Turkey. The study included 1118 children between the ages of 10 to 15. Basic anthropometric measurements including body-mass index (BMI) and skinfold thickness were taken. The skinfold thickness were measured with a Lange skinfold caliper. Fat mass percentage (FM %) was predicted by using skinfold thickness equations. Differences between boys and girls across age groups for weight, height, and BMI were found to be statistically significant (P < 0.0001). With respect to skinfold thickness in the 10-y-old group, the thickness at triceps and subscapular sites in girls was higher than those of boys. In the 12-y-old group, the thickness was found to be higher in girls than boys at the triceps, biceps, and subscapular sites. We found that an increase in skinfold thickness in the 13, 14, and 15-y-old groups was significantly higher among girls than boys and tended to increase with age. However, such a tendency was not shown in boys. This tendency was found only at the triceps site in 10, 12, and 13-y-old boys. In addition, the skinfold thickness at the biceps site was found to be greater in the 14-y-old boys. The body fat mass percent in girls, especially those older than age 13, was also increased.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Skinfold thickness measurements in obese subjects.

To determine the accuracy of skinfold thickness measurements in body composition assessment, skinfold thicknesses, bioelectrical impedance, body density by underwater weighing, and total body water by deuterium dilution were determined in 105 healthy adults who varied widely in body fatness. Body fat ranged from 2.9% to 61.2% of body weight and a substantial number of obese subjects was included. The correlation between body fat calculated from skinfold equations and body fat measured by underwater weighing was in the same range as that between body fat estimated from impedance and underwater weighing. However, body fat calculated both from skinfold equations and bioelectrical impedance tended to be underestimated compared with body fat calculated from underwater weighing and total body water in the most obese subjects. In obese subjects it was not possible to measure significant numbers of skinfold thicknesses because of the inadequate size of the calipers.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

Changes in skinfold thicknesses and body mass index in 171 children, initially 1 to 5 years of age: a 5 1/2-year follow-up study.

Changes in skinfold thicknesses and BMI were investigated in 171 children aged 1-5 years in 1978 and 5 1/2 years later aged 6-10 years in 1984. Tracking in skinfold thicknesses or body fatness and BMI was determined using the correlation coefficients between these variables in 1978 and 1984. Body fatness tracking was higher in girls than in boys. There were no marked differences between skinfold correlations from sites of the trunk and those from the extremities. Generally, about 50 percent of the variation in skinfold thicknesses in girls aged 6-10 years was associated with skinfold thicknesses 5 1/2 years before. In boys, only about 5 percent of the variation of skinfold thicknesses at ages 6-10 years could be explained by values 5 1/2 years before. There was no marked sex difference in BMI tracking. Initially fatter girls showed higher skinfold thickness tracking than initially leaner girls. Parental fatness level and social class were both related to changes in skinfold thicknesses. Children who became relatively fatter in 5 1/2 years had fatter mothers than children who became relatively leaner. Relatively more children of the lower social class became fatter than children of the higher social class. However, parental fatness level and social class were not in a simple additive way related to changes in skinfold thicknesses.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1977

Standards for skinfold thickness in British newborn infants.

Standards of triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses for 1293 Caucasian newborn infants of gestational ages 37-42 weeks, and of 0-25 kg birthweight intervals between 2-25 and 4-5 kg are presented. Female infants had a greater skinfold thickness than males, and the subscapular skinfold was greater than the triceps. The skinfold thickness in both males and females declined after 40 weeks of gestation.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed1994

Prospective multicenter study of second-trimester nuchal skinfold thickness in unaffected and Down syndrome pregnancies.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the distribution of nuchal skinfold thickness in normal and Down syndrome pregnancies and to evaluate the use of this sonographic measurement as a screening test for fetal Down syndrome. METHODS: A prospective, multicenter, population-based study was performed by experienced obstetric sonographers on 1382 women with sonographically normal fetuses undergoing second-trimester amniocentesis for the indication of advanced maternal age. A standard, well-defined sonographic image was obtained at all collaborating centers. The distributions of nuchal skinfold thickness were compared between euploid and Down syndrome fetuses. RESULTS: There were 1346 chromosomally normal pregnancies, 13 fetuses with Down syndrome (1:106), and 23 other chromosome abnormalities. Seventeen fetuses had measurements of 6 mm or greater, and one of these had Down syndrome. The median nuchal skinfold thickness in Down syndrome was 3.2 mm and in euploid fetuses was 3.1 mm. By the Mann-Whitney rank-sum test, there was no statistically significant difference in nuchal skinfold between the euploid and Down syndrome fetuses (P = .5). Overall, using a nuchal skinfold thickness of 6 mm or greater as a screening test, the detection rate for Down syndrome was one of 13 (8%), the false-positive rate was 16 of 1382 (1.2%), the positive predictive value was one of 17 (6%), and the probability of detecting Down syndrome was 6.5%. CONCLUSION: In this investigation, excess nuchal skinfold thickness was a poor and unreliable screening test for Down syndrome.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

The effects of skinfold thickness on the selectivity of surface EMG.

We investigated the effects of skinfold thickness and electrode orientation on the ability to record selectively from a localized region of a muscle using arrays of surface electrodes. EMG activity elicited by electrical stimulation and by voluntary contraction of the biceps muscle was recorded from subjects with skinfold thicknesses ranging from 2 mm to 21 mm. The selectivity of the surface electrodes increased as the skinfold thickness decreased; action potentials were more rapidly attenuated and underwent less low-pass filtering. As a result, the EMG recorded during a voluntary contraction at one site became less highly correlated with that recorded at neighboring sites as skinfold thickness decreased. We were able to determine the axis of action potential propagation (muscle fiber direction) through comparison of the amplitude and delay of cross-correlation peaks from pairs of colinear electrodes oriented at angles to one another, although the thicker the skinfold the lower the resolution. It was clear that the ability to localize EMG signal sources deteriorated as the amount of subcutaneous fat between the surface recording site and the active muscle fibers increased.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Ontogenetic development of skinfold thickness of the trunk in childhood and its relation to Rohrer's index.

The study was aimed at the investigation of the ontogenetic development of thickness of five skinfolds on the trunk in children ranging in age from 1 1/2 to 15 years in relation to Rohrer's index of body fullness. The studies which yielded the basic data were carried out in 1976-1978 on 10,661 children of both sexes (5,322 girls; 5,339 boys) from the whole territory of Czechoslovak Socialistic Republic. The studies yielded the following results: In the course of the early postnatal ontogenesis all five investigated skinfolds of the trunk showed on the average a slight decrease up to the age of three to five years. However, subsequently the thickness of all skinfolds increased, more markedly in girls than in boys. Throughout the investigated period the thickness of all investigated skinfolds remained larger in girls as compared to boys. This difference increased with increasing age. A more marked increase of mean skinfold thickness with increasing age due to the larger amount of subcutaneous fat was present in both sexes in abdominal regions and in in distal parts of the thorax as compared to its upper part, where the increase was more marked than in the subscapular region. The calculated mean values of Rohrer's index of body fullness were systematically decreasing in both sexes throughout the investigated period of life regardless of the development of the measured skinfold thickness. An exception formed the last two age groups of girls (13-14, 14-15 years of age), where, obviously with the onset of increasing total body weight, the calculated mean values showed again only a very slight increase. The actual differences of skinfold thickness and thus possibly also of the amount of subcutaneous fat between individual populations probably were due rather to social and economic factors. However, satisfactory nutrition was observed not only in highly developed, but also in some underdeveloped communities. However, it was not possible to exclude the influence of ethnical factors. This was confirmed by the comparison of our results with the data obtained in primitive rural populations as well as with those ascertained in highly developed countries in industrial populations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1976

Weight and skinfold thickness changes during a physical training course.

The effect of an intensive physical training program on body weight and skinfold thickness was compared in subjects who had initially small (group S), medium (group M) and large (group L) skinfold thickness representing mostly thin, normal and obese recruits, respectively. Weight and skinfold thickness at three sites (triceps, subscapula and abdomen) were measured at the beginning and end of a 6 week intensive military training program. Subjects were on an ad-lib diet. Seventy-one percent of the subjects in group S increased their body weight and 60% increased the sum of their skinfold thickness (SSFT) at the three sites during the training period. These increases were significant at P less than 0.001 and P less than 0.01 for weight and SSFT respectively. In groups M and L the trends for changes in SSFT were in the opposite direction, with 68% of the former and 98% of the latter showing decreases in SSFT. The mean decreases were significant at P less than 0.02 and P less than 0.001 for groups M and L respectively. While the subjects in group L lost weight significantly (P less than 0.001), those in group M reduced their weight only slightly. Our data indicate that changes in body fat, indicated by changes in SSFT, during several weeks of physical activity are not unidirectional and are related to the initial skinfold thickness.

Body Composition↗

PubMed1977

Are Eskimos more or less obese than other Canadians? A comparison of skinfold thickness and ponderal index of Canadian Eskimos.

Skinfold thickness, height, and weight measurements were recorded from 1964 through 1970 for more than 1,000 adult Eskimos who resided in the Central and Eastern Canadian Arctic. Among the men and women of all age groups, 70 to 83% had a low ponderal index (PI less than 12.5). Nutrition Canada reported similar rates in 200 adult Eskimos and therefore considered Eskimos, especially Eskimo men, as more obese than other Canadians. Thin skinfolds were found in most Eskimo men, including those with a low PI. The usefulness of the PI or other height/weight indices for appraisal of body fatness and prevalence of obesity in different population groups is questioned. Marked sex differences were found in the ratio of the skinfold thickness over the triceps to the mean thickness of two sites on the trunk (subscapular and suprailiac). Thus, use of the arm plus trunk sites provides important information about subcutaneous fat distribution, and comparisons of prevalence of obesity in different sex and age groups based only on arm skinfold measurements may be inappropriate.

Abdomen↗

PubMed1975

Energy intake, disability, disease and skinfold thickness in a long-stay hospital.

Body build was assessed by measuring supinator and triceps skinfold thickness of 66 elderly patients in a long-stay hospital. Nursing staff made seven day records of the food intakes for the subjects. These were used to estimate calorie intakes. There was no relationship between energy intake and skinfold thickness. Reduced skinfold thicknesses were more common in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis or a previous fractured neck of femur than in those with cerebro-vascular disease or any other disorder. The findings suggest that the body build of long-stay patients is usually determined by their energy intake prior to admission. The feeding patterns of patients, once they are admitted, have little effect on body build.

Aged↗

PubMed1991

Triceps skinfold thickness in adolescents.

The triceps skinfold thickness (TSF) was measured in 1000 healthy adolescents aged 11 to 18 yr. Measurements were made with the Standard Harpenden skinfold caliper. Females at all ages studied had thicker skinfolds than their male counterparts. Significant differences in skinfold fat were observed between the high and low socio-economic groups, in both sexes. TSF thickness among girls showed a steady gain throughout adolescence. In boys however, there was a dip in TSF followed by a slow rise, the final thickness being somewhat lower than the prepubertal value. TSF was found to have no correlation with height but good positive correlation with weight and wt/ht2 (body mass index). Hence it may be regarded as a reliable indicator of obesity in this age group, where variable pubertal growth makes nutritional assessment difficult.

Adolescent↗