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PubMed2003

Structuring information interfaces for procedural learning.

Interface design should be informed by the application of top-down cognitive principles derived from basic theory and research. Cognitive design principles from 2 domains, event cognition and media, were applied to the design of interfaces for teaching procedures. According to theories of event cognition, procedures should be presented hierarchically, organized by objects or large object parts and actions on objects. According to research on effects of media, adding appropriate graphics to text instructions can facilitate learning and memory. These principles were partially supported in 2 tasks: assembling a musical instrument and building a model. Although both top-down principles were effective in guiding interface design, they were not sufficient. They can be combined with iterative bottom-up methods to produce usable interfaces.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Role of formal instruction and informal practice in learning to drive.

Learning to drive a motor vehicle is important for the mobility of the majority of people in industrialized countries. Although a great deal is known about the acquisition of psychomotor skills in the laboratory and in some other practical settings, there has been little scientific study of learning to drive. One major practical question concerns the value of formal tuition with a qualified instructor and informal practice with friends or relatives. This paper reports a cross-sectional study of 805 learner drivers in the UK who had undergone at least 5 h of formal tuition to examine associations between their history of formal tuition and practice and current levels of skill and confidence as assessed by both pupils and their instructors. The results indicated an increase in instructor ratings of pupil skill with both increasing practice and tuition. However, the relationship between tuition and instructor-rated skill was only observed in pupils who had had no practice. Pupils' self-confidence did not increase with either tuition or practice; instructors' feelings of confidence in and safety with the pupil increased with pupils' prior hours of practice but not tuition. Instructors' ratings of the likelihood that pupils would pass the driving test first time were positively associated with prior hours of practice and negatively associated with prior formal tuition. The results suggest that informal practice constitutes an important element of the process of learning to drive. Longitudinal and experimental studies are now required to confirm this finding and to establish whether recommendations should be made for a component of driving tuition involving supervised practice.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1982

Cognitive information processing and learning mechanisms of the brain.

The view that the two cerebral hemispheres of the human brain are characterized by different cognitive processing modes that handle information received in various forms is commonly accepted by neurobehavioral scientists and neuropsychologists. Selected neuroanatomical, electrophysiological, neurochemical, biochemical, and neuropsychological data that bear on a cognitive information-processing model of the brain are presented. Processes involved in memory functions are discussed in regard to the nature of thought and the characteristics of mental life, e.g., internalization of thought, perception, arousal, attention, cognitive development, problem solving, the development of cognitive encoding, and selective recall. We present a position that argues for the brain as being flexible vs. fixed in its characteristics and limitations, drawing from various theories and viewpoints. We also present a review of selected mechanisms believed to be involved in brain-behavior processes, e.g., learning, cognition, pain, emotion, reward, cognitive development, and memory formation. A major theme addressed in terms of human information processing is that cognitive functioning, in a variety of instances, comprises subsets of more general processes, e.g., selective recall, cueing that is capable of addressing schemas, notions of inhibition and disinhibition, and the modulation of excitatory properties of certain neural transmitter substances. Questions such as "how is information stored in memory in the first place?" and "how do elements of motivation (i.e., goal orientation) get connected and then send their messages to appropriate inbound behaviors?" are addressed from the point of view that learning, although not understood completely, is somehow involved. Another unresolved question of theoretical and practical significance that we address is "how does learning result in neural connections?" Such questions are discussed in light of their implications for human memory, thought, and behavioral events.

Arousal↗
PubMed2005

Roosts as information centres: social learning of food preferences in bats.

The short-tailed fruit bat, Carollia perspicillata, lives in groups in tree hollows and caves. To investigate whether these roosts might serve as information centres, we tested whether individuals' preferences for novel foods could be enhanced through social learning at the roost. We also determined whether socially learned preferences for novel foods were reversed through interaction with other roost mates by simulating changes in available food resources such as those associated with variations in timing of fruit production in different plant species. Bats exhibited socially induced preferences that were readily reversible. We suggest that for frugivorous bats, roosts can serve as centres for information exchange about novel and familiar, ephemeral foods without requiring conspecific recruitment to these resources.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Business models for cost effective use of health information technologies: lessons learned in the CHCS II project.

The Department of Defense (DoD) has embarked on an initiative to create an electronic medical record for all of its eligible beneficiaries. The Clinical Information Technology Program Office (CITPO) is the joint-service program office established to centrally manage this multi-year project. The Composite Health Care System II (CHCS II) is the name of the system under development. Given the historical failure rate of large-scale government information system projects, CITPO has employed an incremental acquisition approach and striven to use industry best practices to the greatest degree possible within the constraints of federal acquisition law. Based on lessons learned during the concept exploration phase of this project, CITPO, in partnership with Integic Corporation, the prime integration contractor, has reengineered its software acquisition process to include industry best practices. The result of this reengineering process has resulted in a reduction of the total projected life cycle costs for CHCS II from the original estimate of $7.6 billion over a 14-year period to between $3.9 and $4.3 billion.

Cost-Benefit Analysis↗
PubMed2004

The role of oculomotor information in the learning of sequential aiming movements.

With their eyes initially on either the home, midline, or final end position, 30 participants practiced a 2-target aiming movement. After 120 acquisition trials, participants performed a retention test and were then transferred to each of the other 2 eye conditions. During acquisition, all groups improved over practice, but the home group showed the greatest improvement. The temporal improvement was most pronounced in the times spent after peak velocity. Retention and transfer tests indicated that participants performed best under eye-movement conditions that were the same as the 1 they had practiced in. There was also positive transfer of training between conditions in which the oculomotor information was similar. Thus, to optimize learning, one should practice under the same afferent and oculomotor conditions that will be required for the final performance.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Cellular mechanisms of learning, memory, and information storage.

In Table 1, we summarize what is convincingly demonstrated to date for the major vertebrate and invertebrate model systems attempting to elucidate cellular mechanisms of associative learning. Two major concerns are the adequacy of the behavioral demonstrations and the completeness and extent of the accompanying neurophysiology. In addressing the issue of behavior, it is important to define clearly which criteria are both necessary and sufficient to infer the involvement of an associative-learning process. Similarly, it is also important to distinguish among those primary characteristics of associative learning in general, and those secondary or tertiary features that serve to define various subclasses. In our view, it would be unreasonable to require that any given preparation exhibit all the defining features of classical conditioning, for example, in order to qualify as a "legitimate" instance of associative learning. This is especially true if the goal is to understand the more general, rather than the specific, mechanisms involved in associative learning. Hence, we emphasize the following as primary features of learned behavior: pairing specificity, stimulus specificity, long-term retention (arbitrarily defined as lasting for at least 24 hr), a moderate degree of reversibility by subsequent experience (e.g. extinction), and demonstrations that nonassociative-learning processes cannot account for features a-c. Where appropriate, we also identified other interesting features of the learned behavior. It is apparent from the table that a major unresolved issue for most of the preparations is the extent to which the behavioral changes are exclusively associative. This is no less true for the vertebrate preparations than it is for the invertebrates. The clearest example of an exclusively associative behavioral change is the rabbit NMR. The learning-produced changes in the invertebrate preparations were all shown, to varying degrees, to be pairing specific. Yet a major unresolved issue is the degree to which apparent examples of associative-learning reflect complex interactions among basically nonassociative-learning processes. The core issue is really quite simple: Does the associative training procedure result in the acquisition of new or qualitatively different behavior; and is there a strict requirement for an associative relation? In addressing the adequacy of the neurophysiological analyses, the major issue is that of localization. Logically, there are two components to this.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Physical and psychosocial aspects of the learning environment in information technology rich classrooms.

This paper reports on a study of environments in emerging Internet classrooms. At issue for this study is to what extent these 'technological classrooms' are providing a positive learning environment for students. To investigate this issue, this study involved an evaluation of the physical and psychosocial environments in computerized school settings through a combination of questionnaires and inventories that were later cross-referenced to case studies on a subset of these classrooms. Data were obtained from a series of physical evaluations of 43 settings in 24 school locations in British Columbia, Canada and Western Australia. Evaluations consisted of detailed inventories of the physical environment using the Computerised Classroom Environment Inventory (CCEI): an instrument developed specifically for this study. Data on psychosocial aspects of the environment were obtained with the What is Happening in this Class? (WIHIC) questionnaire administered to 1404 high school students making routine use of these computerized classrooms. Potential deficiencies in the physical environment of these locations included problems with individual workspaces, lighting and air quality, whereas deficiencies in the psychosocial environment were confined to the dimension of Autonomy. Further analysis of these classroom environment data indicated that student Autonomy and Task orientation were independently associated with students' Satisfaction with learning and that many physical (e.g. lighting and workspace dimensions) and psychosocial factors (e.g. students' perceptions of Co-operation and Collaboration) were also associated. The results provide a descriptive account of the learning environment in 'technology-rich' classrooms and, further, indicate that ergonomic guidelines used in the implementation of IT in classrooms may have a positive influence on the learning environment.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

The effects of augmented information on motor learning: a multidimensional assessment.

Subjects performed trials of a two-hand coordination task involving the manipulation of a small, steel ball through a maze. During the acquisition phase, control subjects received no augmented information while subjects in two experimental groups were provided with visual aids or a cognitive strategy. One day later, subjects performed under control conditions on familiar (relearning phase) and unfamiliar (transfer phase) sections of the maze. A 3 x 3 (Group x Phase) repeated measures multivariate analysis of variance revealed significant phase differences for all dependent measures but no significant group effects. Chi-square analysis of ratings of cue usage as well as postexperimental interviews suggested, however, that practice conditions differentially influenced the search strategies of subjects. Implications of the findings for contemporary theories of motor learning are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Prescription drug liability: the learned intermediary and informed consent.

Prescription drugs are the most often used therapy in health care. Because they are dangerous and sometimes cause severe side effects, it is important for drug manufacturers, health care providers, and patients to understand their responsibilities regarding prescription drug liability. The learned intermediary doctrine, exacting a duty from the drug manufacturer to warn the doctor of prescription drug properties, is discussed. The doctrine of informed consent is reviewed as a cause of action where a doctor fails to inform a patient of prescription drug properties. Application of the medical community and patient-centered standards as they relate to informed consent cases is made.

Communication↗
PubMed2002

Observational versus feedback training in rule-based and information-integration category learning.

The effects of two different kinds of categorization training were investigated. In observational training, observers are presented with a category label and then shown an exemplar from that category. In feedback training, they are shown an exemplar, asked to assign it to a category, and then given feedback about the accuracy of their response. These two types of training were compared as observers learned two types of category structures--those in which optimal accuracy could be achieved via some explicit rule-based strategy, and those in which optimal accuracy required integrating information from separate perceptual dimensions at some predecisional stage. There was an overall advantage for feedback training over observational training, but most importantly, type of training interacted strongly with type of category structure. With rule-based structures, the effects of training type were small, but with information-integration structures, accuracy was substantially higher with feedback training, and people were less likely to use suboptimal rule-based strategies. The implications of these results for current theories of category learning are discussed.

Concept Formation↗
PubMed2007

Phylogenetic tree information aids supervised learning for predicting protein-protein interaction based on distance matrices.

BACKGROUND: Protein-protein interactions are critical for cellular functions. Recently developed computational approaches for predicting protein-protein interactions utilize co-evolutionary information of the interacting partners, e.g., correlations between distance matrices, where each matrix stores the pairwise distances between a protein and its orthologs from a group of reference genomes. RESULTS: We proposed a novel, simple method to account for some of the intra-matrix correlations in improving the prediction accuracy. Specifically, the phylogenetic species tree of the reference genomes is used as a guide tree for hierarchical clustering of the orthologous proteins. The distances between these clusters, derived from the original pairwise distance matrix using the Neighbor Joining algorithm, form intermediate distance matrices, which are then transformed and concatenated into a super phylogenetic vector. A support vector machine is trained and tested on pairs of proteins, represented as super phylogenetic vectors, whose interactions are known. The performance, measured as ROC score in cross validation experiments, shows significant improvement of our method (ROC score 0.8446) over that of using Pearson correlations (0.6587). CONCLUSION: We have shown that the phylogenetic tree can be used as a guide to extract intra-matrix correlations in the distance matrices of orthologous proteins, where these correlations are represented as intermediate distance matrices of the ancestral orthologous proteins. Both the unsupervised and supervised learning paradigms benefit from the explicit inclusion of these intermediate distance matrices, and particularly so in the latter case, which offers a better balance between sensitivity and specificity in the prediction of protein-protein interactions.

Computational Biology↗
PubMed1998

Who follows whom? Shoaling preferences and social learning of foraging information in guppies.

Preferences of fish for different types of shoals may influence the transmission of novel information through them. We investigated the factors influencing the preferences of guppies, Poecilia reticulata, for different shoals in order to shed some light on how information transmission occurs. Adult subjects were given a choice between swimming with two diverging shoals of conspecifics that differed with respect to key characteristics. In six choice experiments, subjects discriminated between shoal partners on the basis of: (1) shoal size, subjects preferring a shoal of 10 to a single fish; (2) size of shoaling fish, small fish preferring small conspecifics rather than an equal number of large fish, while large fish showed no preference; (3) local foraging experience of shoaling fish, shoals containing fish that had previously been repeatedly fed in the experimental tank being preferred to shoals with no such experience; and (4) familiarity of shoaling fish, guppies preferring familiar rather than unfamiliar conspecifics. No discrimination on the basis of colour or hunger was observed. In addition, following a shoal to a food site on just three trials allowed guppies to learn a route, or food site, preference. Guppies were considerably more likely to learn to adopt the behaviour shown by members of a shoal of several demonstrators than an alternative behaviour shown by a single conspecific demonstrator. The relationship between preferences for different shoals and the social transmission of information is discussed in the light of these findings. The results suggest that shoaling preferences may strongly influence the social transmission of novel foraging information or feeding preferences through fish populations, and imply that learned infor-mation may diffuse through fish populations in a nonrandom, or directed, manner. Copyright 1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

Assessing the ability of people with a learning disability to give informed consent to treatment.

BACKGROUND: People with a learning disability are increasingly being encouraged to take a more active role in decisions about their psychological and medical treatment, raising complex questions concerning their ability to consent. This study investigates the capacity of people with a learning disability to consent in the context of three treatment vignettes, and the influence of verbal and memory ability on this capacity. METHODS: Measures of verbal ability, memory ability and ability to consent to treatment (ACQ) were administered to 40 people with a learning disability. The ACQ consisted of three vignettes depicting a restraint, psychiatric or surgical intervention. These were followed by questions addressing people's ability to understand the presenting problem; the nature of the proposed intervention; the alternatives, risks and benefits; their involvement in the decision-making process; and their ability to express a clear decision with a rationale for treatment. RESULTS: Five people (12.5%) could be construed as able to consent to all three vignettes; 26 (65%) could be construed as able to consent to at least one. The questions that were most difficult to answer concerned a participants' rights, options and the impact of their choices. Verbal and memory ability both influenced ability to consent. CONCLUSIONS: This study introduces a measure that may enable clinicians to make more systematic assessments of people's capacity to consent. A number of issues surrounding the complex area of consent to treatment are also raised.

Adult↗