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PubMed1998

Uptake of inorganic mercury in the olfactory bulbs via olfactory pathways in rats.

Uptake and transport in the olfactory neurons may be an important means by which some heavy metals gain access to the brain. In the present study we explored whether inorganic mercury (203Hg2+) may be taken up in the CNS via the olfactory pathway. Autoradiography and gamma spectrometry showed that intranasal instillation of 203Hg2+ in the right nostrils of rats resulted in much higher levels of the metal in the right olfactory bulbs than in the left ones. At the side of the application of the 203Hg2+ there was also a labeling of the olfactory nerve bundles projecting to the olfactory bulbs as well as in the olfactory nerve-fibres constituting the olfactory nerve layer of the bulbs, which was not seen on the opposite side. The results also showed that the 203Hg2+ accumulated in the glomerular layer of the bulbs. These data indicate that our results can be ascribed to a movement of the mercury along the olfactory axons to their terminal parts in the glomeruli and not to circulatory uptake from the mucosal vasculature. At late survival intervals a low labeling was also discernable in the external plexiform layer, indicating that a low level of 203Hg2+ leaves the terminal arborizations of the axons in the glomeruli. An uptake of 203Hg2+ in the glomerular layer of the olfactory bulbs was also seen in rats given the metal intraperitoneally. This uptake was similar in the right and left bulbs and always much lower than in the right bulbs of the rats given 203Hg2+ in the right nostrils. The intraperitoneal injections in addition resulted in an uptake of the 203Hg2+ in the olfactory epithelium. We propose that in these rats the mercury is taken up from the blood into the olfactory neurons and then moves along the axons to their terminations in the olfactory bulbs. In humans a continuous exposure of the nasal cavity to mercury vapor (Hg0), released from amalgam fillings and oxidized to Hg2+ in the olfactory mucosa, as well as a potential uptake of Hg2+ in the olfactory neurons from the blood, may lead to considerable concentrations of the metal in the olfactory bulbs.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Interleukin-1beta and its type 1 receptor are expressed in developing neural circuits in the frog, Xenopus laevis.

The cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1beta) is an evolutionarily conserved molecule that was originally identified in the immune system. In addition to regulating peripheral immune responses, IL-1beta plays an important role in mediating neural-immune interactions and regulating glial activities during healing and repair in the damaged nervous system. Active IL-1beta is produced by interleukin-converting enzyme (ICE), a caspase thought to be involved in the induction of apoptosis. We report that, in the developing frog, Xenopus laevis, IL-1beta and the IL-1 type 1 receptor proteins are coexpressed in specific neurons that comprise early sensory-motor circuits. IL-1beta and IL-1 type 1 receptor proteins are colocalized in specific midbrain and hindbrain reticular cells, including Mauthner's neuron; specific cells in the trigeminal (fifth), lateral line (seventh), and vestibular (eighth) cranial ganglia; oculomotor neurons; and the primordial Purkinje cells of the lateral cerebellar auricle. In the spinal cord, Rohon-Beard sensory neurons, dorsal root ganglion cells, and primary motoneurons are immunopositive. Anteriorly, the olfactory pits, olfactory nerves, and olfactory bulbs are labeled, as are retinal cells, especially photoreceptor inner segments. With regard to the function of IL-1beta during neural development, IL-1beta and its type 1 receptor are present throughout the course of neural development in identifiable, long-lived neurons, such as Mauthner's neuron. These and other data suggest that IL-1beta and its type 1 receptor may be involved in the maintenance of cell survival rather than induction of neuronal death.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

An experimental study of the connections of the telencephalon in the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). I: Olfactory bulb and ventral area.

The fluorescent carbocyanine dye 1,1'-dioctadecyl 3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate (DiI) was used in fixed tissue to comprehensively analyze the connections of the olfactory bulbs and the different regions of the ventral (V) area of the telencephalic lobes (subpallium) of the rainbow trout. With this goal, DiI was applied to the different telencephalic nuclei and zones, as well as to the olfactory nerve, the olfactory bulb, the retina, and to several structures in the diencephalon and brainstem of juvenile trout. The olfactory bulbs maintain reciprocal connections with several regions of the telencephalon [ventral nucleus of V (Vv), supracommissural nucleus (Vs), posterior zone of D (Dp), preoptic nucleus], and also project to the diencephalon (posterior tuberal nucleus, posterior hypothalamic lobe). Vv receives afferents from Vs, the dorsal nucleus of V (Vd), the preoptic nucleus, and from several nuclei in the diencephalon and brainstem (suprachiasmatic nucleus, anterior and lateral tuberal nuclei, preglomerular complex, tertiary gustatory nucleus, posterior tubercle, inferior hypothalamic lobes, thalamus, torus semicircularis, secondary gustatory nucleus, locus coeruleus, superior raphe nucleus, central gray, and reticular formation), and projects to dorsal (pallial) regions and most of the nuclei afferent to Vv. The dorsal nucleus of V (Vd) and Vs mainly project to the dorsal area. In an accompanying article (Folgueira et al., 2004), we present the results of application of DiI to dorsal (pallial) telencephalic regions, as well as of several experiments of tracer application to extratelencephalic regions. The results presented here, together with those of the accompanying article, reveal a complex connectional pattern of the rainbow trout ventral telencephalon, most of these connections having not been described previously in salmonids.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Transitory uptake of serotonin in the developing sensory pathways of the common marmoset.

Serotonin (5-HT) affects brain development during sensitive developmental periods. In rodents, transient sites of high affinity capture of 5-HT were demonstrated in the primary sensory neurons and in the sensory thalamocortical afferents. This uptake is required to adjust 5-HT receptor stimulation during the formation of sensory maps. To determine whether similar mechanisms exist in primates, we analyzed staged embryos and postnatal pups in the common marmoset (total gestation time, 142 days). Immunocytochemical analyses were performed using antisera to 5-HT, to the serotonin transporter (SERT), and to the vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT2). 5-HT, SERT, and VMAT2 labeled the raphe neurons and their terminal network from embryonic day (E)70 to adulthood. In addition, from E70-130 VMAT2 and SERT were observed in all the sensory cranial nerves, the olfactory nerve, the gustatory, the trigeminal, the auditory fibers, in the retinal ganglion cells, and the optic tract up to the lateral geniculate nucleus and the superior colliculus. All the spinal sensory ganglia and their peripheral sensory branches were labeled. Accumulation of 5-HT was observed in all the sensory neurons expressing SERT and the corresponding axon tracts. Since these neurons were missing tryptophan hydroxylase (TPH), the synthesizing enzyme for 5-HT, they most likely accumulated 5-HT through the action of the amine transporters, as has been shown in rodents. No transient expression of 5-HT markers was detectable in the sensory thalamocortical axons at any of the ages examined. Thus, the existence of 5-HT uptake in nonserotoninergic neurons appears to be a conserved feature in primates, although the topographic extent of this transient expression is more restricted than that previously demonstrated in rodents.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1994

Glia-derived nexin/protease nexin-1 is expressed by a subset of neurons in the rat brain.

Glia-derived nexin/protease nexin-1 (GDN/PN-1) is a serine protease inhibitor that is secreted by glial cells and fibroblasts in culture. In the adult mammalian nervous system it has been shown to be expressed in the olfactory system and by some glial cells in response to neuronal injury. In situ hybridization and immunocytochemical studies were performed to identify the structures expressing GDN/PN-1 in the developing and adult rat brain. In contrast to a transient widespread expression during pre- and postnatal development, some brain structures constitutively express GDN/PN-1. These include the olfactory nerve layer of the olfactory bulb, basal forebrain, striatum, pyramidal neurons of layer V in the cortex, thalamic nuclei, pars compacta of the substantia nigra, inferior and superior colliculi, and deep cerebellar nuclei. All of these parts, excluding the olfactory nerve layer, are characterized by a high neuronal cell density. Neurons in these regions were immunoreactive for GDN/PN-1. Furthermore GDN/PN-1 expression in cell lines showed that the active protein was synthesized and secreted from B104 but not from NB2a neuroblastoma cells. Although GDN/PN-1 has only been reported to be synthesized by glia, the results presented here demonstrate that in addition, a subset of neurons express this protease inhibitor.

Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor↗

PubMed1989

Receptor autoradiographic analysis of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) binding sites in rat forebrain and pituitary gland.

1. Specific 125I-labeled insulin-like growth factor-I [( 125I] IGF-I) binding sites in the rat forebrain and pituitary gland were investigated using quantitative receptor autoradiography. 2. High densities of [125I]IGF-I binding sites were present in the olfactory nerve layer, olfactory glomerular layer, choroid plexus, CA3 and CA4 of the hippocampus, basolateral amygdaloid nucleus, and endopiriform nucleus. Moderate to high binding densities were found in the cerebral cortex (II, VI), bed nucleus stria terminalis, accumbens nucleus, lateral septum, median preoptic nucleus, supraoptic nucleus, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, and ventroposterior thalamic nucleus. In the circumventricular organs, subfornical organ, vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, and median eminence, the binding sites were numerous. High densities of [125I]IGF-I binding sites were also observed in the anterior pituitary gland. 3. In kinetic experiments, [125I]IGF-I binding sites in the olfactory glomerular layer, choroid plexus, median eminence, and anterior pituitary gland were found to be single and of a high affinity. 4. Noteworthy was the difference in the potency of insulin in inhibiting the binding among the areas examined, a finding which suggests heterogeneity of IGF-I receptors. 5. The possibility that IGF-I plays the role of a neurotransmitter and/or neuromodulator in the central nervous system warrants further investigation.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Two differing salmon GnRH precursor mRNAs are co-expressed in the brain of sockeye salmon.

The localization of two salmon-type gonadotropin-releasing hormone (sGnRH) precursors, pro-sGnRH-I (short type) and pro-sGnRH-II (long type), was investigated by using in situ hybridization techniques in the brain of the landlocked sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka. We used 30-mer oligonucleotide probes complementary to pro-sGnRH-I and pro-sGnRH-II cDNA. No significant differences were observed in the localization of sGnRH neurons expressing pro-sGnRH-I and pro-sGnRH-II mRNAs; both were expressed in the olfactory nerve, the olfactory bulbs, the regions between the olfactory bulb and telencephalon, the ventral telencephalon, the preoptic area, and the hypothalamus. Almost all sGnRH neurons examined co-expressed both precursors. The expression of two sGnRH precursors in the same neuron and the wide distribution of such neurons in the brain suggest that there are no functional differences between the two precursors.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Subclasses of olfactory receptor cells and their segregated central projections demonstrated by a monoclonal antibody.

A library of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) was generated against a homogenate of the rabbit olfactory bulb. One of them immunohistochemically distinguished a subgroup of olfactory nerves. Both in the olfactory bulb and the epithelium, this MAb labeled most olfactory receptor axons in the lateral but only a small fraction in the medial portion. These findings demonstrate a molecular heterogeneity among olfactory receptor cells and suggest a functional division between the lateral and the medial portions of the epithelium and the bulb.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Slice culture of the olfactory bulb of Xenopus laevis tadpoles.

We report on the development of a slice culture of amphibian brain tissue. In particular, we cultured slices from Xenopus laevis tadpoles that contain the olfactory mucosae, the olfactory nerves, the olfactory bulb and the telencephalon. During 6 days in roller tubes the slices flattened, starting from 250 microm and decreasing to approximately 40 microm, corresponding to about three cell layers. Dendritic processes could be followed over distances as long as 200 microm. Neurons in the cultured slice could be recorded using the patch clamp technique and simultaneously imaged using an inverted laser scanning microscope. We characterized the main neuron types of the olfactory bulb, i.e. mitral cells and granule cells, by correlating their typical morphological features in the acute slice with the electrophysiological properties in both the acute slice and slice culture. This correlation allowed unambiguous identification of mitral cells and granule cells in the slice culture.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Superficial siderosis of the meninges and its otolaryngologic connection: a series of five patients.

OBJECTIVE: To study the otolaryngologic disorders in patients with superficial siderosis of the meninges. BACKGROUND: Superficial siderosis of the central nervous system is a rare disorder characterized by progressive bilateral hearing loss and ataxia caused by recurrent bleeding into the subarachnoid space. The cerebellum, eighth cranial nerve, and olfactory nerve are particularly susceptible to the deposition of hemosiderin, which is responsible for the symptoms. The diagnosis is confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging. METHODS: The clinical notes of five patients with superficial siderosis of the meninges were reviewed with the intent of reporting the otolaryngologic symptoms and signs, the clinical investigations, and treatments. RESULTS: Four of the five patients had sensorineural deafness, two had smell disturbances, and three had gait abnormalities. Magnetic resonance imaging was the most important investigation used to identify the condition. CONCLUSIONS: Superficial siderosis of the meninges is an important differential diagnosis in patients with progressive sensorineural deafness.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

Patterns of intracellular potentials in salamander mitral/tufted cells in response to odor stimulation.

1. Changes in membrane potential and temporal patterns of spikes were analyzed in 30 output cells in the salamander olfactory bulb in response to stimulation with 1-s pulses of the odorants isoamyl acetate, cineole, and camphor. The odor responses were more complex than responses to electrical stimulation of the olfactory nerve or olfactory tracts, with which they were compared. Most began with hyperpolarization and contained prolonged hyperpolarizing and depolarizing potentials that appeared to be compound postsynaptic potentials. These potentials were related to periods of spike inhibition and excitation. The temporal patterns of the responses resembled S-type (for suppression) and E-type (for excitation) patterns described previously in extracellular-unit studies. 2. In single cells, graded but nonmonotonic changes in the responses were observed with increases in the odor concentration from 10(-3) to 10(-1) vapor-phase saturation. Abrupt changes from one category of temporal response pattern to another were generally not observed in response to different concentrations of a single odorant but were frequently observed when the stimulus was changed from one odorant to another. 3. In S-type patterns, the first event was always membrane hyperpolarization and spike inhibition, regardless of the odor concentration. At all concentrations, simple S-type responses were observed in which a single period of hyperpolarization and inhibition lasted several seconds. At moderate to high concentrations, complex S-type responses were observed in which a period of excitation followed an initial period of hyperpolarization and inhibition. In these responses, spikes were often elicited near the termination of the odor pulse, occasionally as early as 300-400 ms after pulse onset. A prolonged period of inhibition followed the period of excitation. 4. In E-type patterns, the first event depended on the odor concentration. At all concentrations, complex responses were observed in which a period of excitation occurred with short latency, followed by a period of inhibition. At low to moderate concentrations, a brief initial period of hyperpolarization preceded the excitation. This initial period of hyperpolarization was always shorter than those in complex S-type responses to equivalent concentrations. However, the range of spike latencies overlapped that of S-type responses to high concentrations. With increasing odor concentration, spike latencies in the E-type responses decreased relative to the onset and peak of the initial hyperpolarization. At high concentrations. spikes were frequently elicited preceding a single period of hyperpolarization and inhibition.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Expression of isoforms of the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) and polysialic acid during the development of the Bufo arenarum olfactory system.

The neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), a member of the immunoglobulin superfamily that promotes Ca(2+)-independent cell-cell adhesion, is expressed as various isoforms generated by alternative splicing. In this study, the expression of the 180 kDa isoform (180-NCAM), total NCAM (180, 140 and 120 kDa isoforms) and the polysialic acid moiety of NCAM (PSA) were analyzed during the development of the olfactory system of the toad Bufo arenarum using specific antibodies and immunofluorescence light microscopy. NCAM and PSA were not found in the ectodermal thickening corresponding to the olfactory placode at early larval stage (stage 17), but by stage 19, total NCAM, 180-NCAM and PSA were all expressed in the invaginating olfactory placode at the sites of cell-cell contact and in the differentiating olfactory epithelium. Later, NCAM isoforms and PSA were found also in the primary fibers of the olfactory nerve and in the olfactory bulb. However, the expression of 180-NCAM decreased near the end of larval development and was absent in post-metamorphic and adult animals. In contrast, total NCAM (representing 140 and/or 120 kDa isoforms) and PSA continued to be expressed in olfactory tissues of post-metamorphic and adult animals, consistent with the persistent neural plasticity of this tissue. Because 180-NCAM has been associated with non-proliferating neurons, its down-regulation in post-metamorphic and adult olfactory system may be associated with the regenerative capability and continuous cell turnover documented for this region in adult animals.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Interaction of the transplanted olfactory placode with the optic stalk and the diencephalon in Xenopus laevis embryos.

The effect of olfactory placode transplantation on the differentiation of the optic vesicle and stalk has been studied in Xenopus laevis embryos. Host embryos (stages 23-24) received the transplant of two olfactory placodes from same-stage donors in place of a partially or totally removed optic vesicle. All tadpoles were sacrificed at stages 47-50. The host tadpoles were subdivided in three groups according to the amount of optic vesicle removed. In the first group all of the optic vesicle was removed. At sacrifice a lobar mass of nervous tissue, continuous with and protruding from the diencephalic wall, was penetrated by the olfactory nerves from the transplanted placodes and a well-defined glomerular layer was present at the entrance zone of the olfactory nerves. The lobar protrusion contained a normal ventricular cavity, connected by a foramen to the third ventricle. The ventricle was lined by a mitotically active ependymal layer. In the second group the host embryos were deprived of two-thirds of the optic vesicle. In these animals we observed the development of a round mass of nervous tissue connected by a peduncle to the diencephalic wall. A ventricle lined by ependyma was present in the formation; however, the cavity was not continuous with the third ventricle. Olfactory nerves from the transplanted placodes penetrated the rostral portion of the nervous mass and formed a distinct glomerular layer. In the third group of embryos only one-third of the optic vesicle was removed. These animals developed irregularly shaped structures where ocular tissue and nervous tissue coexisted. The termination of the supranumerary olfactory nerves and the glomerular layer were restricted to the non-ocular nervous tissue. The interpretation of the histogenetic phenomena determining the protrusions is difficult and further studies are needed. It seems highly probable, however, that the fate of such determined structures as the optic peduncle and vesicle can be influenced by the olfactory input, supporting the hypothesis that the ectopically directed olfactory fibres interfere with the differentiation of the optic structures.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Multicomponent water proton transverse relaxation and T2-discriminated water diffusion in myelinated and nonmyelinated nerve.

The influence of compartmental boundaries on water proton transverse relaxation and diffusion measurements was investigated in three distinct excised nerves, namely, the non-myelinated olfactory nerve, the Schwann cell myelinated trigeminal nerve, and the oligodendrocyte myelinated optic nerve of the garfish. The transverse relaxation decay curves were multiexponential and their decomposition yielded three primary components with T2 values approximately 30-50, 150, and 500 ms, which were subsequently assigned to water protons in the myelin, axoplasm, and interaxonal compartments. The short T2 component was absent in the non-myelinated olfactory nerve, but present in both myelinated nerves and thus provides supporting evidence for the use of quantitative T2 measurements to measure the degree of myelination. The signal contribution of each T2 component to the apparent diffusion coefficient measurements was varied by incrementing the spin-echo time with a preparatory CPMG train of radiofrequency pulses. The apparent diffusion coefficient and its anisotropy were shown to be independent of the spin-echo time over the range of 70 to 450 ms.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1998

p59fyn and pp60c-src modulate axonal guidance in the developing mouse olfactory pathway.

The Src-family tyrosine kinases p59fyn and pp60c-src are localized on axons of the mouse olfactory nerve during the initial stages of axonal growth, but their functional roles remain to be defined. To study the role of these kinases, we analyzed the trajectory of the olfactory nerve in E11.5 homozygous null mutant mice lacking single src or fyn gens and double mutants lacking both genes. Primary olfactory axons of single and double mutants exited the olfactory epithelium and projected toward the telencephalon, but displayed differences in fasciculation. The fyn-minus olfactory nerve had significantly more fascicles than than src-minus nerve. Most strikingly, the primary olfactory nerve of src/fyn double mutants showed the greatest degree of defasciculation. These defects, identified by NCAM labeling, were not due to apparent changes in the size of the olfactory epithelium. With the exception of the src-minus mice, which had fever fascicles than the wild type, no obvious differences were observed in coalescence of vomeronasal axons from mutant mice. The mesenchyme of the double and single mutants exhibited only subtle changes in laminin and fibronectin staining, indicating that the adhesive environment of the mesenchyme may contribute in part to defects in fasciculation. The results suggest that signaling pathways mediated by p59fyn and pp60c-src contribute to the appropriate fasciculation of axons in the nascent olfactory system, and comprise partially compensatory mechanisms for axonal adhesion and guidance.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

GABA immunoreactivity in the olfactory bulbs of the adult sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus L.

The distribution of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) immunoreactivity in the olfactory bulbs of the adult sea lamprey was studied using an antibody against this transmitter. Five types of GABA-immunoreactive (GABAir) cells were observed. Medium-sized GABAir cells (periglomerular cells) were located around the olfactory glomeruli and occasionally within them. In the inner cellular layer of the bulbs and around the olfactory ventricles, two types of GABAir perikarya were present: some medium-sized GABAir cells and numerous small GABAir cells (granules). In the walls of the olfactory ventricle, some medium-sized GABAir cells of cerebrospinal fluid-contacting type were observed. At the entrance of the olfactory nerves, medium-sized GABAir bipolar cells were present, mostly located between the olfactory nerve and the glomerular layer or close to the meninges, but some in the intracranial portion of the olfactory nerve. GABAir processes were present in all layers of the olfactory bulb. In addition there were also GABAir cells in the dorsal interbulbar commissure. The distribution of GABA observed in the olfactory system of lampreys indicates that this transmitter plays a major role in the modulation of bulbar circuits. The presence of granular and periglomerular cells in lampreys indicates that these two intrinsic GABAergic neurons of the olfactory bulbs are shared by most vertebrates, although lampreys have additional GABAir cell types.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Localized denervation demonstrates the innervation pattern of olfactory bulb glomeruli and second order cells.

Sensory systems rely upon spatially organized projections for the faithful transfer of receptor activity into the central nervous system. While the mammalian olfactory nerve shows a regional topographical organization, data on the sources of variation within this projection are scarce. We evaluated the degree of precision of olfactory bulb glomerular innervation from the olfactory nerve layer (ONL) by making small cuts across the trajectory of the olfactory nerve fibers and assessing the resulting denervation by wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase (WGA-HRP) labeling of primary nerve fibers. In control animals (no ONL cut), the ONL and glomerular layer showed intense labeling around the entire circumference of the bulb. Transneuronal labeling of the mitral cell layer and the external plexiform layer was also observed in animals surviving at least 2 days, which allowed us to study the nerve fiber innervation of second order cells as well. ONL cuts on the lateral face of the bulb produced a stripe of denervation, as evidenced by the absence of primary and transneuronal label in a well-defined region. Fascicles of fibers within the ONL were never observed to enter the denervated region from more than one or two glomerular widths away, indicating a relatively tight limit of variation in the spatial termination of olfactory nerve fibers on the lateral bulb surface. This limit of variation does not hold around the circumference of the bulb since similar ONL cuts on the dorsal surface failed to produce a distinct stripe of denervation. Field potential measurements from the ONL after similar cuts supported the anatomic findings. These results show that primary olfactory axons and their terminals lie in parallel along the lateral face of the olfactory bulb. These spatial relationships of olfactory input to the bulb are maintained in the second order connections. This organization allows one to study the spatial aspects of interneuronally mediated synaptic mechanisms involved in olfactory coding.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

[The olfactory neurotoxicity of cisplatin and effects of two drugs].

32 guinea pigs were used as animal models for the study of cisplatin induced olfactory neurotoxicity and the effects of sodium thiosulfate (STS) and cystine on the toxicity by light and electron microscopy. The results revealed that the olfactory epithelium, olfactory nerve and the olfactory bulb were all damaged by the application of cisplatin and manifested as the lysis of the myelinated nerve fibers of olfactory epithelium, edema and degeneration of the axons, atrophy of the olfactory epithelium and the compensatory proliferation of Bowman's glands. STS and cystine did not show significant effects on the neurotoxicity of cisplatin. The data suggested that cisplatin is an important toxic drug for olfactory system.

Animals↗