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PubMed1998

[Fatty acid composition of the cervical mucus obtained during ovulation and at the term of pregnancy].

BACKGROUND: Aim of this work is to evaluate the different fatty acid composition of cervical mucus obtained during ovulation and at the term of pregnancy. METHODS: The fatty acid composition in cervical mucus was determined in 14 non pregnant women during expected ovulation (cervical score > 10) and in 12 at term pregnant women. Following extraction, (acidification and transesterification), the identification and quantification of fatty acids was performed by gas-chromatographic analysis, with the aid of a specific software. RESULTS: In both groups of samples, palmitic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid were the prevalent acids comprising more than half of the total amounts. Compared to non pregnant samples, in pregnant cervical mucus, elevated levels of oleic acid were pointed out, while mean levels of miristic acid and stearic acid were lower. In the samples of cervical mucus drew at the term of pregnancy, arachidonic acid levels mean values were higher when the first period of labour was started. CONCLUSIONS: The pregnancy-induced biochemical changes in fatty acid pattern could likely be correlate to the variations of the physiochemical properties and to the physical appearance that cervical mucus undergoes during pregnancy. The elevated levels of arachidonic acid, during the first period of labour, may be correlated with prostaglandin production by intrauterine tissues (amniotic fluid, amnion, chorion, decidua, myometrium) and probably by cervical mucus.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

Cell cycle-dependent changes in arachidonic acid and glycerol metabolism in Swiss 3T3 cells stimulated by platelet-derived growth factor.

Quiescent Swiss 3T3 cells stimulated to divide by human platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) were used to investigate cell cycle-dependent changes in arachidonic acid, stearic acid, and glycerol metabolism. PDGF at 12 ng/ml stimulated incorporation of labeled arachidonic and stearic acid into phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylinositol within 60 min. With similar kinetics PDGF stimulated glycerol incorporation into phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylinositol indicating early growth factor-dependent stimulation of de novo phosphatidylinositol synthesis. This early effect of PDGF was specific for the phosphatidylinositol synthesis pathway since no comparable changes were noted in other glycerolipids. After a lag of 4-6 h, PDGF strongly stimulated arachidonic acid incorporation into triacylglycerol: at 6 h, arachidonate radioactivity in triacylglycerol exceeded that in phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol. This effect of PDGF was not associated with de novo triacylglycerol synthesis since no increase in the rate of glycerol incorporation into this lipid was noted. Finally, PDGF stimulated incorporation of glycerol into all major phospholipids and triacylglycerol during S-phase. These results disclose three novel effects of PDGF on glycerolipid metabolism in Swiss 3T3 cells: 1) early selective activation of the phosphatidylinositol synthesis pathway; 2) delayed strong stimulation of arachidonic acid incorporation into triacylglycerol; and 3) late induction of de novo phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and triacylglycerol synthesis. These PDGF effects are likely to play important roles in phosphatidylinositol metabolism, membrane biosynthesis, and fatty acid turnover in rapidly growing cells.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

Stereospecific distribution of palmitic acid in the triacylglycerols of rat adipocytes. Effects of varying the composition of the substrate fatty acid in vitro.

The effects of inclusion of different fatty acids in the medium on the rate of esterification of palmitic acid and its stereospecific distribution among the three positions of the triacyl-sn-glycerols by preparations of rat adipocytes in vitro have been determined. Myristic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid were used as diluents and the concentration of the combined unesterified fatty acids in the medium was held constant; only the proportion of palmitic acid was varied. The amount of palmitic acid esterified was always linearly related to its relative concentration in the medium and was not significantly affected by the nature of the diluent fatty acid chosen. Constant relative proportions were recovered in triacylglycerols and in intermediates in each instance. The amount of palmitic acid esterified to each of the positions of the triacyl-sn-glycerols was linearly dependent on the relative proportion in the medium but the nature of the relationship was markedly influenced by which fatty acid was present. When stearic acid was present, simple relationships were found over the whole range tested. When either myristic acid, oleic acid or linoleic acid was present, abrupt changes in the manner of esterification of palmitic acid were observed in position sn-1 when the relative concentrations of palmitic acid and the diluent reached critical values, which differed with each fatty acid. In position sn-2 when oleic acid or linoleic acid was present, a similar change was observed, and in position sn-3 it was obtained with myristic acid as diluent. The results are discussed in terms of changes in the relative affinities of the acyltransferases for palmitic acid. Palmitic acid was esterified into various molecular species in proportions that indicated acylation with non-correlative specificity at higher relative concentrations but not at lower.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1990

Unusual fatty acid substitution in lipids and lipopolysaccharides of Helicobacter pylori.

Cellular fatty acids, phospholipid fatty acids, and lipopolysaccharide fatty acids of four strains of Helicobacter pylori were analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography. The presence of myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, 19-carbon cyclopropane fatty acid, beta-hydroxypalmitic acid, and beta-hydroxystearic acid was confirmed. In phospholipids, myristic acid and 19-carbon cyclopropane fatty acid were the major fatty acids. Hydroxy fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids were not detected or occurred only in small amounts. The major fatty acids of lipopolysaccharides were stearic acid, beta-hydroxypalmitic acid, and beta-hydroxystearic acid. Unsaturated fatty acids and 19-carbon cyclopropane fatty acid were not found. The unusual compositions of H. pylori phospholipid and lipopolysaccharide fatty acids may have important implications for the taxonomy, physicochemical membrane properties, and biological activity of lipopolysaccharides.

Campylobacter↗

PubMed1997

Desaturation and interconversion of dietary stearic and palmitic acids in human plasma and lipoproteins.

Dietary saturated fatty acids are implicated as a risk factor for atherosclerosis. The conversion of the major dietary saturated fatty acids stearic acid (18:0) and palmitic acid (16:0) to monounsaturated fatty acids in whole plasma and lipoprotein fractions is reported for seven healthy adult humans over 6 d using [U-13C]stearic acid (18:0*) and [U-13C]palmitic acid (16:0*) and high-precision mass spectrometry. A tracer dose (28-32 mg) of 18:0* or 16:0* was loaded into an emulsion and orally administered before breakfast. Serial blood samples were collected on day 1 and fasting blood was drawn daily until day 7. Overall conversion of 18:0 to 18:1 was approximately 14%, whereas that of 18:0 to 16:0 was approximately 2% in plasma up to 144 h. Conversion of 16:0 to 16:1 was < 2%, whereas conversion of 16:0 to 18:0 was approximately 6%. No other fatty acid metabolites were detected for 18:0* or 16:0*. The conversion products were observed mainly in chylomicrons and very-low-density lipoproteins, indicating that the intestine and liver have comparable roles in desaturating 18:0 and 16:0. Overall, these data indicate that dietary 18:0 desaturation is severalfold greater than 16:0 desaturation. The low level (14%) of 18:0 desaturation in omnivorous adults may have little influence on blood lipid profiles relevant to atherosclerosis risk.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

The increase in plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 expression by stimulation of activators for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in human endothelial cells.

OBJECTIVE: [corrected] To investigate the effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) activators on plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 (PAI-1) expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and the possible mechanism. METHODS: Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were obtained from normal fetus, and cultured conventionally. Then the HUVECs were exposed to test agents (linolenic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid and prostaglandin J2 respectively) in varying concentrations with fresh media. RT-PCR and ELISA were applied to determine the expression of PPARs and PAI-1 in HUVECs. RESULTS: PPAR alpha, PPAR beta and PPAR gamma mRNA were detected by using RT-PCR in HUVECs. Treatment of HUVECs with PPARalpha and PPAR gamma activators--linolenic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid and prostaglandin J2 respectively, but not with stearic acid could augment PAI-1 mRNA expression and protein secretion in a concentration-dependent manner. However, the mRNA expressions of 3 subclasses of PPAR with their activators in HUVECs were not changed compared with controls. CONCLUSION: HUVECs express PPARs. PPARs activators may increase PAI-1 expression in ECs, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Although PPARs expression was not enhanced after stimulated by their activators in ECs, the role of functionally active PPARs in regulating PAI-1 expression in ECs needs to be further investigated by using transient gene transfection assay.

Cells, Cultured↗

PubMed1980

Effect of acute nitrogen dioxide exposure on the composition of fatty acids in lung and liver phospholipids.

In order to examine the effects of NO2 on the fatty acid content of the lung and liver phospholipids, the phospholipid fractions of rats exposed to 20 ppm NO2 for 20 and 40 h were extracted and analyzed using gas chromatography. Among the ftty acid species in the lung, the relative amount of palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid and linoleic acid increased significantly, whereas myristic acid, stearic acid and oleic acid decresed significantly after exposure to NO2. These changes in the composition of fatty acids are discussed in comparison with the results of acute, subacute and chronic exposure to NO2 reported by other workers. In the case of the fatty acid species in the liver, a significant increase for stearic acid and arachidonic acid and a decrease in oleic acid were observed.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Glycosphingolipid headgroup orientation in fluid phospholipid/cholesterol membranes: similarity for a range of glycolipid fatty acids.

Galactosyl ceramide (GalCer) was labeled for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy by replacement of a hydrogen atom at C6 of the galactose residue with deuterium. Wideline 2H NMR of [d1]GalCer permitted consideration of a mechanism traditionally entertained for cell surface recognition site modulation: that the nature of the fatty acid attached to the sphingosine backbone of glycosphingolipids (GSLs) importantly influences carbohydrate headgroup orientation. Comparison was made among various glycolipid fatty acids by altering hydroxylation, saturation, and chain length. Studies were carried out in unsonicated bilayer membranes mimicking several important characteristics of cell plasma membranes: fluidity, low GSL content, predominant [sn-2]monounsaturated phosphatidylcholine (PC) (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl PC), and the presence of cholesterol. Spectroscopy was performed on samples over a range of temperatures, which included the physiological. 2H NMR spectra of [d1]GalCer having 18-carbon saturated fatty acid (stearic acid), cis-9-unsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid), D- and L-stereoisomers of alpha-OH stearic acid, or 24-carbon saturated fatty acid (lignoceric acid) were importantly similar. This argues that for GSLs dispersed as minor components in fluid membranes, variation of the glycolipid fatty acid does not provide as much potential for direct conformational modulation of the carbohydrate portion as has sometimes been assumed. However, there was some evidence of motional differences among the species studied. The 2H NMR spectra that were obtained proved to be more complex than was anticipated. Their features could be approximated by assuming a combination of axially symmetric and axially asymmetric glycolipid motions. Presuming the appropriateness of such a analysis, at a magnetic field of 3.54 T (23.215 MHz), the experimental spectra suggested predominantly asymmetric motional contributions. At the higher field of 11.7 T (76.7 MHz, equivalent to a proton frequency of 500 MHz), spectra indicated dominance by axially symmetric rotational modes. There was also evidence of some bilayer orientation in the stronger magnetic field. The unusual observation of spectral differences between the two magnetic field strengths may involve a diamagnetic response to high field on the part of some liposome physical characteristics.

Cell Membrane↗

PubMed1994

Biochemical epidemiology of colon cancer: effect of types of dietary fiber on colonic diacylglycerols in women.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: In view of the potential significance of dietary fat and fiber in colon cancer and the possible indirect involvement of diacylglycerols (DAGs) in the pathogenesis of colon cancer, the effect of types of dietary fiber on fecal DAG in premenopausal women was investigated. METHODS: Forty-eight women consuming a typical western diet provided two 24-hour stool specimens and two sets of preintervention 4-day food records. They were randomly assigned to one of the fiber groups, namely, a wheat, oat, or corn bran supplement. They consumed their control diet plus 13-15 g of dietary fiber from each source for 8 weeks. At the end of the fiber period, each subject provided two 24-hour stool specimens and 4-day food records. Stool samples collected during the two periods were analyzed for total fat and DAG fatty acids. RESULTS: All sources of dietary fiber increased the amount of fecal fat excreted. Dietary wheat bran decreased the concentrations of total DAG and DAG containing lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and linoleic acid, whereas oat bran increased the DAG composed of oleic acid and linoleic acid compared with the control diet. Corn bran decreased the DAG containing stearic acid. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that the modifying effect of dietary fiber on DAG depends on the type of fiber consumed.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Unsaturated fatty acids alter aqueous humor dynamics and uveal flow.

We report the effects of four unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) - arachidonic (AA), linoleic, alpha-linolenic and oleic acid - and one saturated fatty acid (stearic acid) on aqueous humor (AH) dynamics of the isolated arterially perfused cat eye. UFAs, but not stearic acid, increase inflow of AH and elevate IOP; they do not affect the size of the pupil except for AA which produces maximal constriction. Indomethacin blocks the AA induced increase in inflow and the constriction of the pupil but it does not prevent the rise in IOP; indomethacin does not block increased flow or IOP caused by linoleic acid. We conclude that the fatty acid moiety of UFAs affects the blood aqueous barrier and possibly also the outflow channels. AA has a dual effect since in addition to a general fatty acid effect, an AA induced cyclo-oxygenase product affects AH inflow and constricts the pupil. All UFAs dilate the iridial part and constrict the choroidal part of the ciliary processes; this may contribute to increased inflow of AH and elevation of IOP.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Lipids and nitric oxide in porcine retinal and choroidal blood vessels.

Lipid profiles of porcine retina, and retinal and choroidal vessels were analyzed using the gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) technique. The retina and both isolated retinal and choroidal vessels contained saturated fatty acid stearic acid and polyunsaturated fatty acids, including arachidonic (C20:4, AA), a precursor for vasoactive prostaglandin (PG-2) series, and W-6 docosahexaenoic acids (C22:6, DHA). However, eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5, EPA), a precursor for PG-3 series, was not detected in these vessels. When stearic acid was used for normalization of tissue sample, the retina contained relatively higher amounts of DHA than AA, retinal vessels had equal amounts of AA and DHA, while choroidal vessels contained higher amounts of AA than DHA. We also examined the endogenous synthesis of vasoactive endothelial-derived factors like PGs and nitric oxide (NO). Since vasoactive angiotensin II (Ang II) releases these products from blood vessels, this polypeptide was used in a porcine retinal circulation model. The porcine retinal central artery was perfused with oxygenated/heparinized physiological salt solution at 37 degrees C. Changes in A1 and A2 arteriolar diameters induced by Ang II were determined in the absence and presence of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, l-NO Arginine (LNOA), and cyclooxygenase inhibitor, flurbiprofen (FB). The central retinal artery designated as the first order arteriole A1 and subsequent branch was defined as A2. Luminal diameters of Al and A2 arterioles were 35 +/- 2 am and 10 +/- 1 microm, respectively. Topical Ang II (10(-10) M-10(-6) M) caused small vasoconstrictions in a dose-dependent manner. This response was enhanced after inhibition of PG synthesis by (10-6 M) FB. Ang II induced-constrictions were further enhanced in the presence of NO synthase inhibitor, LNOA (10(-7) M). There was slightly more increase in Ang II-induced vasoconstrictions in the presence of both NO and PG inhibitors, suggesting that NO may cause release of PGs from these vessels. This study demonstrates that the porcine retinal arterioles have the ability to regulate vasoconstriction responses induced by Ang II by synthesis and release of endogenous vasodilating PGs and NO (especially NO); and these substances may play a vital role in porcine retinal circulation.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed2005

Increased ratio of saturated to unsaturated C18 fatty acids in colonic adenocarcinoma: implications for cryotherapy and lipid raft function.

Mammalian fatty acid synthase (FASE) overexpression has been shown in a number of human malignancies including colonic adenocarcinoma. Since FASE synthesizes only saturated fatty acids, we hypothesized that cancer cells have a greater proportion of long-chain saturated fatty acids. We studied and found an unequivocal increase in saturated C18 fatty acid (stearic acid) in colonic adenocarcinoma compared to adjacent normal colonic mucosa. The increase is even more striking when measured as a ratio of stearic acid to the unsaturated C18 fatty acids (oleic acid and linoleic acid). This change in fatty acid composition of the cancer cells should significantly alter their physical and biological properties. The increase in relative proportion of saturated fatty acids should make the cancer cells more susceptible to cryodamage and measurement of fatty acid composition of cancer cells may help individualize the temperature for cryotherapy. Also, the lipid alterations may affect the structure and functions of lipid rafts, which may enable the cancer cells to affect signaling mechanisms such as those involved in cell growth and apoptosis. Dietary or therapeutic interventions targeting lipid rafts may thus be an option for cancer treatment.

Adenocarcinoma↗

PubMed1988

The effect of triacyl-sn-glycerol structure on the metabolism of chylomicrons and triacylglycerol-rich emulsions in the rat.

A systematic study was undertaken to observe the effects of dietary (dioleoyl) triacyl-sn-glycerol structure on chylomicron composition and metabolism. First studied was a series of 1,2-dioleoyl-3-(saturated)acyl-sn-glycerols, where the fatty acid esterified at the 3-position was varied from 14 to 24 carbons. Next a series of 1,3-dioleoyl-2-acyl glycerols was studied, with various fatty acids esterified at the glycerol 2-position. These stereospecific triacyl-sn-glycerols were fed to donor rats and lymph chylomicrons were isolated, analyzed, and reinjected into recipient rats to study their disappearance from plasma and delivery to tissues. As shown by their compositions, chylomicrons obtained after feeding triacylglycerols containing all sn-3 fatty acid of chain length greater than 20 carbons were under-represented, possibly due to poorer digestion by lipases, or poorer absorption by the intestine. The 18-carbon saturated chain fatty acid (stearic acid) was equally well represented in chylomicrons whether in the 2- or 3-position of the fed triacylglycerol. The presence of increased amounts of long-chain saturated fatty acids in donor chylomicron triacylglycerols affected the metabolism of chylomicrons injected into the bloodstream of recipient rats. In particular the rate of removal of labeled cholesteryl esters, tracing removal of the partially degraded chylomicron remnants was slowed by the saturated chains, with palmitic acid and the 20-carbon fatty acid, arachidic acid, showing the most severe effects. There were clear differences in the removal from plasma of injected lymph chylomicrons derived from fed triacylglycerols containing stearic acid in either the 2- or 3-position, with evidence for remnants from the symmetrical triacylglycerols being less rapidly removed from the circulating blood. This effect was investigated further by injected model emulsions of chylomicrons, where the 2-position was substituted with saturated or transunsaturated acyl chains. Quantitation of removal from the blood stream of these model lipoproteins confirmed that a saturated or transunsaturated long chain fatty acid at the 2-position of the emulsion triacylglycerols slowed remnant removal from the blood. In some cases, with both lymph chylomicron and with emulsions, the lipolytic step mediated by lipoprotein lipase was also slowed.

Animals↗

PubMed1965

LIPIDS OF ISOLATED NEURONS.

1. Lipids were extracted from neurons isolated from the lateral vestibular nucleus of ox (Bos taurus L.) and the ganglia of Aplysia punctata Cuvier. 2. Thin-layer chromatography of ox-neuron lipid revealed three major fractions corresponding to neutral lipid, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine. Part of the phosphatidylethanolamine was present as the plasmalogen. 3. Aplysia-neuron lipid contained neutral lipid, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine. Both phospholipids appeared to be present predominantly as the plasmalogen form. 4. The fatty acids of alkali-labile lipids of ox neurons were examined by gas-liquid chromatography. The major fatty acids were oleic acid, stearic acid and palmitic acid.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Comparison of a carbohydrate-rich diet and diets rich in stearic or palmitic acid in NIDDM patients. Effects on lipids, glycemic control, and diurnal blood pressure.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects on lipid levels, glycemic control, and diurnal blood pressure of two diets rich in one of the two quantitatively most important saturated fatty acids, stearic and palmitic acid, with a carbohydrate-rich diet in NIDDM patients. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 15 NIDDM patients participated in a randomized crossover study with three 3-week diet interventions separated by 2-week washout periods. Patients started with a diet rich in stearic acid (44 E% [percent of total energy] fat [13 E% stearic acid], 40 E% carbohydrate, 15 E% protein), palmitic acid (45 E% fat [16 E% palmitic acid], 40 E% carbohydrate, 15 E% protein), or carbohydrate (29 E% fat, 51 E% carbohydrate, and 18 E% protein), then were shifted to the other two diets in a randomized block design. At the start and end of each intervention period, fasting blood samples were drawn for analysis of lipids and blood glucose. In addition, diurnal blood pressure was measured. RESULTS: At the end of the 3-week interventions, total cholesterol was significantly higher after the palmitic acid-rich diet than after the stearic acid-rich or carbohydrate-rich diets (5.3 +/- 1.3 vs. 5.0 +/- 1.2 and 4.9 +/- 1.2 mmol/l, respectively; P = 0.03). No significant differences in triglyceride, LDL, or HDL cholesterol levels were seen after the three intervention diets. No difference in effects between the diet periods were seen for fructosamine, HbA1c, fasting blood glucose, or diurnal blood pressure. CONCLUSIONS: For the first time, it has been demonstrated that a diet rich in palmitic acid was not as effective in lowering cholesterol levels as carbohydrate-rich and stearic acid-rich diets in NIDDM patients. No deleterious effects were seen on diurnal blood pressure, triglyceride levels, and glycemic control. Development of foods containing stearic acid rather than the more atherogenic saturated fatty acids may allow a wider choice of acceptable foods to NIDDM patients.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Effect of fatty acids on the membrane potential of an alkaliphilic bacillus.

Effect of various fatty acids on the membrane potential of an alkaliphilic Bacillus, YN-2000, was examined. Addition of unsaturated fatty acids such as palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid at 30 microM caused the instantaneous depolarization of the membrane potential of the bacterium, which appears to result in the drastic decrease of viability. On the other hand, no depolarization was detected by the addition of saturated acids such as palmitic acid, stearic acid, and 12-hydroxystearic acid even at 1 mM.

Bacillus↗

PubMed1968

The characterization and distribution of hexahydropolyprenyl esters in cultures of Aspergillus fumigatus Fresenius.

The total mycelial lipid of Aspergillus fumigatus was analysed and over half of its hexahydropolyprenol was shown to be esterified with fatty acids. Comparison of the fatty acid content of the prenyl esters with the sterol ester and the total lipid indicated a marked predominance of saturated fatty acids in the polyprenyl esters. The predominant acids esterified to the prenols were palmitic acid, linoleic acid, oleic acid, lignoceric acid, stearic acid and palmitoleic acid. Most of the unesterified polyprenol was found in the mitochondrial fraction, but the esterified prenol was equally distributed throughout the cell fractions. This distribution was unlike that found for ergosteryl ester in the same tissue.

Alcohols↗

PubMed2007

Analysis of the products from enzymatic scouring of cotton.

This article discusses the analysis of the hydrolysis products from one-step scouring of cotton using pectinase and two-step scouring of cotton using lipase then cellulase, protease then cellulase, or lipase/protease then cellulase, to improve water absorbency of cotton. UV spectrophotometric analysis indicated that the pectinase scouring process produced approximately 18-fold higher amounts of reducing sugars and galacturonic acid than any of the two-step scouring processes. The production rate of reducing sugars and galacturonic acid from most of the scouring processes showed a decrease with an increase in time. HPLC analysis revealed that the lipase/protease/cellulase scouring processes produced approximately 5-fold higher amounts of 17 amino acids than the pectinase scouring process. GC analysis for 18 fatty acids (C(8)-C(24)) revealed that three major fatty acids, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and behenic acid, were found on both the scoured and the unscoured fabrics. Scoured fabrics were tested for content of proteins, extractable components, waxes, and anionic components including pectins, and some differences among the fabric scoured with different enzyme combinations were found.

Cellulase↗