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PubMed1998

Immunoexpression of aquaporin-1 in the efferent ducts of the rat and marmoset monkey during development, its modulation by estrogens, and its possible role in fluid resorption.

Recent data suggest that estrogens play a role in regulating fluid resorption from the efferent ducts, though the biochemical mechanisms involved are unknown. The present study has used immunocytochemistry to localize a water channel protein, Aquaporin-1 (AQP-1), to the efferent ducts of male rats and marmoset monkeys from perinatal life through to adulthood and has then investigated its potential hormonal regulation in neonatal/peripubertal life, via administration of a GnRH antagonist (GnRHa) or diethylstilbestrol (DES) to rats. AQP-1 was immunoexpressed intensely in the apical brush border of the epithelium lining the efferent ducts at all ages studied, from late fetal life through puberty to adulthood. In the marmoset, but not the rat, AQP-1 was also expressed in the epithelium of the rete testis. Once the cell types within the efferent duct epithelium had differentiated, it was clear that only nonciliated cells of the rat localized AQP-1. When gonadotropin secretion was suppressed in rats by neonatal administration of GnRHa, immunoexpression of AQP-1 at age 18 and 25 days was virtually unchanged in intensity, though the efferent ducts were reduced in size. In contrast, when DES was administered neonatally to rats (up to day 12), immunoexpression of AQP-1 was reduced at day 10, virtually abolished at day 18, reduced markedly at day 25 and to a small extent at day 35; these findings were confirmed by Western blot analysis at day 18. The DES-induced decrease in immunoexpression of AQP-1 was accompanied by pronounced distension of the efferent ducts and rete, consistent with reduced fluid resorption. The epithelial cells of the efferent ducts in DES-treated rats were cuboidal rather than columnar in shape as in controls and were reduced significantly in height compared with controls at all ages through to adulthood. These findings suggest that estrogens may play a role in regulating fluid resorption from the efferent ducts during fetal/neonatal development and/or a role in the gross and functional development of the efferent ducts and rete testis. The present data also suggest that AQP-1 is one of the elements involved in the regulation of fluid resorption in the efferent ducts. The importance of fluid flow in fetal/neonatal development of the excurrent duct system of the male is also suggested by these observations.

Absorption↗

PubMed1992

Composition of fluids obtained from human epididymal cysts.

The fluid composition of five epididymal spermatocoeles, one epididymal cyst and a hydrocoele was examined. The fluid obtained from the spermatocoeles was a dilute suspension of mainly immotile spermatozoa. The sperm-free fluid contained less protein, phosphate, glucose, triglyceride and cholesterol than serum but more testosterone and chloride than peripheral blood. It contained no epididymal secretion products. Proteins in the fluid differed from those in serum. From the fluid composition these cysts appeared to be continuous with the rete testis, either dilatations of efferent ducts or Haller's superior aberrant duct (vas aberrans of the rete testis). Fluid from an epididymal cyst containing no spermatozoa was mainly of similar composition. In contrast, hydrocoele fluid resembles blood serum.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

The form and function of the Leydig cells in hypophysectomized rams treated with pituitary extract when spermatogenesis is disrupted by heating the testes.

The morphology and in-vivo function of the Leydig cells were studied in rams when spermatogenesis had been disrupted by a single exposure of the testes 20 days earlier to a temperature of about 42 degrees C for 45 min. To avoid complications due to changed negative feedback from the testes to the pituitary with consequent changes in the degree of gonadotrophic stimulation, ten of the animals (five heated and five unheated) were surgically hypophysectomized when the testes were heated and then treated twice daily with pituitary extract. Six intact rams (three heated and three unheated) were also studied. The heat-affected testes were about half the size of the unheated testes, and blood plasma flow was closely related to testis weight. There were no differences in the testosterone concentrations in spermatic venous blood, testicular lymph or rete testis fluid, or in oestradiol in spermatic venous plasma from heated or unheated testes. Consequently, testosterone secretion by the heat-affected testes was markedly reduced, and the concentrations in jugular blood were also lower in the heat-affected rams than in controls. The volume of the interstitial tissue was less in absolute terms in the heat-affected rams, but it made up a greater fraction of the testes. The absolute volume of the blood plus lymph vessels, and their fraction of the interstitial tissue were lower in the heat-affected testes, although there was no effect on their volume as a fraction of the whole testis. The heat-affected testes of the hormone-treated rams had fewer Leydig cells, but each cell was larger; no equivalent difference was found in the intact rams. However, the dose of pituitary extract chosen was somewhat excessive, as there were higher than normal concentrations of FSH, LH and testosterone in jugular blood plasma, of testosterone and oestradiol in testicular venous blood plasma and of testosterone in rete testis fluid in the hormone-treated hypophysectomized rams. The testes of the unheated hypophysectomized rams increased in size by about 20% during treatment with pituitary extract, although testicular blood plasma flow was lower per unit weight of testis. The absolute volume of each Leydig cell and the total volume in absolute terms and as a fraction of the interstitial tissue was greater in the hormone-treated than in the untreated rams, but not the volume as a fraction of the whole testis. The total number of Leydig cells was higher in the hormone-treated unheated rams than in all the other rams taken together.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1988

Differential localization of glycoconjugates having affinity for concanavalin A on the surface of the sperm head in the testis, the epididymis, and the ejaculate of the ram.

The localization of Con A receptors on the surface of the head of ram spermatozoa originating from the rete testis, from three regions of the epididymis, or from the ejaculate was investigated using a gold-Con A labelling technique. Electron microscopic observation revealed three major localizations, each being characteristic of the origin of the spermatozoa: periacrosomal in the rete testis, postacrosomal in the epididymis, on the entire surface of the sperm head in the ejaculate.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

[Benign cystic tumors of the testis in children].

Benign cystic testicular tumors are very uncommon in childhood. These tumors can be dysplasic or teratomatous forming two peculiar groups. First electively affect the rete testis cells realizing simple cysts or multicystic dysplasia. The authors report one case of simple cyst in a four months old boy and analyse the eight observations of the literature of similar localisation and histologic structure. Dysplasic cysts are always surrounded by cuboidal or flatted epithelium and their contain is a clear liquid. The cystic dilatation of the rete testis would be consecutive to a defect of junction between the two different embryologic formations of the testicle and its excretor system. The primitive perturbation would affect the mesonephrotic formations sometimes partial cause of simple cysts, elsewhere more extensive responsible of the multicystic dysplasia associated in maximum cases with urinary system malformations. Liquid of the cysts would be the consequence of a very early accentuation of the rete cells secretion. In a second part, the different sorts of benign cystic teratomas are exposed, in order: epidermoid cysts, dermoid cysts and benign mature teratomas. For each of them are related their histologic structure and the frequency in consideration of literature analysis. These teratomatous cystic tumors would be results of a same tumoral process of increasing differentiation. They are benign under condition to be perfectly pure, examination of the whole piece is mandatory. All these benign tumors are commonly revealed by a large isolated testicle, the echography and negative biological evaluation (alpha foetoprotein, gonadotrophin hormones) may lead to suspect the type of tumor but histology only makes the diagnosis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Dermoid Cyst↗

PubMed1981

[Evidence for testosterone induced prealbumin secretion in ram epididymis].

The fluids of the Rete Testis and of the different areas of the epididymis (caput, corpus, cauda) were collected by micropuncture of the Rete Testis or the epididymal duct from caput and corpus of normal Rams (n = 3) and 4 months orchidectomized Rams having in the last month a subcutaneous implant testosterone (200 mg) which delivered a constant rate of testosterone for 4 weeks. Homogenates of epididymal tissues from orchidectomized Rams (3 months) were prepared in saline (n = 4). All samples diluted in saline, were centrifuged and submitted to polyacrylamide slab gel electrophoresis (7.5% acrylamide) at pH 8.3. Results showed an alpha-globulin Rf 1.1 whose molecular weight was approximately 105,000 D which was clearly detected into the fluid of the caput or corpus epididymis, weakly in the cauda epididymis of normal Rams and at the 3 levels of the epididymis of the testosterone supplemented castrates; it was absent in tissues of castrated Rams not supplemented with testosterone supplemented castrates; it was absent in tissues of castrated Rams not supplemented with testosterone. Results were discussed according to epididymal sperm maturation.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

Functional relationships of the mammalian testis and epididymis.

The development of knowledge in four areas of research in male reproductive physiology of particular interest is reviewed. The concept of the blood-testis barrier (BTB), which arose following dye exclusion from the seminiferous tubules, has now been established as the differential transfer from interstitial fluid to tubular and rete testis fluids of molecules of physiological importance. The composition of fluid collected mostly from the rete testis of several species, not only reflects the nature of the barrier, but also the secretory capacity of the Sertoli cell. The functional significance of the transfer of molecules into testicular fluid and the composition of the fluid flowing into the epididymis are discussed. Sertoli cells establish the structural basis of the BTB during puberty and divide the seminiferous epitheliuym into basal and adluminal compartments. The Sertoli cell is the prime target for follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). The responses evoked by FSH are discussed, including special mention of androgen binding protein (ABP) and the protein hormone, 'inhibin', with FSH-suppressing properties. The control of FSH in the lamb is mentioned including new evidence to support a tubular source of a feedback agent with significance during the impuberal stage. Finally, some of the biochemical properties of the epididymis and its fluid contents are reviewed and the epididymal sperm are identified as the site of the antifertility action of the 6-chloro-6-deoxy sugars.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Germ cell transfer into rat, bovine, monkey and human testes.

Germ cell transplantation is a potentially valuable technique offering oncological patients gonadal protection by reinitiating spermatogenesis from stem cells which were reinfused into the seminiferous tubules. In order to achieve an intratubular germ cell transfer, intratubular microinjection, efferent duct injections and rete testis injections were applied on dissected testes of four different species: rat, bull, monkey and man. Ultrasound-guided intratesticular rete testis injection was the best and least invasive injection technique with maximal infusion efficiency for larger testes. Deep infiltration of seminiferous tubules was only achieved in immature or partially regressed testes. This technique was applied in vivo on two cynomolgus monkeys. In the first monkey a deep infusion of injected cells and dye into the lumen of the seminiferous tubules was achieved. In the second, transplanted germ cells were present in the seminiferous epithelium 4 weeks after the transfer. These cells were morphologically identified as B-spermatogonia and located at the base of the seminiferous epithelium. In summary, this paper describes a promising approach for germ cell infusion into large testes. The application of this technique is the first successful attempt of a germ cell transfer in a primate.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Evidence for LH-inhibiting activity in ovine peripheral and testicular blood.

Intracellular cyclic AMP and testosterone productions by purified mature rat Leydig cells were stimulated by oLH (25 micrograms/l) 18- and 12-fold, respectively, after a 5-h incubation period. The replacement of the incubation medium by charcoal-treated testicular venous plasma (40%, v/v) from adult rams in the breeding season induced an inhibition of cyclic AMP and testosterone productions (82 and 66%, respectively, of oLH-stimulated values). Testicular arterial plasma is less effective than testicular venous plasma, even when it originates from non-breeding season rams; in that case, testicular venous and arterial plasma strongly inhibit testosterone productions (84 and 67%, respectively of oLH-stimulated values), which probably indicates that the inhibitory activity is higher in the non-breeding season. The addition of peripheral plasma leads to a testosterone production equal to 35 and 65% of the oLH-stimulated values, respectively, for ram blood collected in non-breeding and breeding seasons. The same concentration of ovine testicular lymph or rete testis fluid is without significant effect on cyclic AMP production; however, testosterone is slightly decreased by lymph but enhanced by rete testis fluid. Increasing amounts of venous or arterial testicular blood induce a dose-related decrease of the specific binding of labelled hCG in both rat and ram testicular membranes. This inhibiting factor is present in peripheral and testicular blood of either control or hypophysectomized or castrated rams, is a protein in nature, heat-sensitive, and has an apparent molecular weight higher than 10,000 daltons.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Sequence analysis of a mammalian phospholipid-binding protein from testis and epididymis and its distribution between spermatozoa and extracellular secretions.

The cellular origin of a soluble phospholipid-binding protein (PBP) in rat testicular and epididymal secretions has been investigated genetically and immunologically. PBP is ubiquitous in tissue cytosols but is not present in blood serum, lymph or milk. The relatively large amounts present in cauda epididymal plasma (CEP) and rete testis fluid suggested therefore that it may be secreted specifically by these tissues. However, when PBP cDNAs from testis and epididymis were cloned and sequenced, they did not contain a signal peptide and only one size of transcript was obtained on Northern blots of RNAs from liver, brain, placenta, testis and epididymis. Moreover, PBP could not be detected in sperm-free CEP from castrated, androgen-stimulated animals or in medium from Sertoli cell cultures. Spermatozoa, on the other hand, contained significant amounts of PBP that could be solubilized by washing cells in dissociating reagents or high-salt solutions. These results indicate that, contrary to previous interpretations, PBP is not secreted by classical pathways in either the testis or epididymis but that its presence in CEP and rete testis fluid is attributable largely to release from spermatozoa. Thus, spermatozoa have a significant influence on the composition of CEP as well as on the secretory and absorptive activity of the epididymal epithelium. A possible role for PBP in membrane biogenesis and maintenance of antigen segregation in spermatozoa is discussed.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1989

The route of secretion of inhibin from the rat testis.

Levels of immunoactive and bioactive inhibin were measured in venous blood collected at a point just before (testicular venous) and after (spermatic venous) its passage through the mediastinal venous plexus over the anterior pole of the rete testis, and compared with levels in peripheral venous blood and testicular interstitial fluid (IF). In 15 control rats, levels of inhibin were highest in IF (8900 +/- 432 ng/l; mean +/- SEM) and lowest in peripheral (290 +/- 32 ng/l) and testicular (288 +/- 34 ng/l) venous blood, whilst levels in spermatic venous blood (633 +/- 99 ng/l) were always higher (P less than 0.002) than the levels in testicular venous blood. The latter difference was either reduced or abolished after disruption of spermatogenesis by local heating of the testes 8, 14, or 21 days previously, and by ligation of the efferent ducts for 6 h or more, but was not affected by acute removal of the epididymis. It is concluded that inhibin secreted into seminiferous tubule fluid may be reabsorbed from the rete testis and this may be the major route by which it reaches the peripheral bloodstream in rats with normal spermatogenesis.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

[Cystic dysplasia of the testis: report of a case and review of the literature].

Cystic dysplasia of the testis (CDT) is a rare, benign and congenital lesion causing scrotal mass in pediatric population that can mimic testicular cancer. This lesion consists of cystic dilation of the rete testis and it is frequently associated with renal or genitourinary tract anomalies as renal agenesis and multicystic dysplasia of the kidney. This frequent presentation suggests that testicular cystic dysplasia is associated with a defect of the metamesonephric system in particular with a defect in the connection between the efferent ducts derived from the mesonephros and the rete testis tubules derived from the gonadoblastoma. The role of ultrasound is of primary importance for clinical diagnosis and follow-up of untreated forms. The sonographic appearance of CDT consists of multiple cysts in the mediastinum testis. The cysts range in size from microscopic to several millimetres and may involve the whole testicular parenchyma or have a focal aspect. If the cysts are tiny, the ultrasound must be able to distinguish between CDT and testicular microlithiasis, a potential premalignant condition. Today it is possible thanks to high frequency 7.5 to 10 mHz probes. In the past orchiectomy has been considered as the treatment of the choice for CDT. Today, non operative management of CDT represents an effective alternative option in these patients and the primary benefit of this approach is the preservation of endocrine function and spermiogenic activity. However, the natural history of untreated CDT and its effect on normal testicular tissue are still unknown, therefore long-term follow-up is recommended.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed2004

[Therapeutical options for seminomas at clinical stage I-IIA/B].

Seminomas represent the most common histological subgroup of all testicular germ cell tumors. About 75% of all seminomas present as clinical stage I disease at time of initial diagnosis and exhibit a long-term cure rate of 99%. Management strategies maintaining these high cure rates but minimizing the risks need are actively pursued. Currently, three treatment strategies are available for stage I seminomas: surveillance, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Pathohistological prognostic factors allow an individualized risk-adapted therapeutic approach. Tumor size < or =4 cm and absence of rete testis invasion define a low-risk group with a recurrence rate of 12% being best managed by surveillance. Tumor size >4 cm and presence of rete testis invasion define a high-risk with a 35% risk of relapse, best managed by active therapy. Active treatment either consists of radiation of the ipsilateral paracaval or paraaortic lymph nodes with 20 Gy or of adjuvant chemotherapy with 2 cycles of carboplatin. It is currently unclear if 1 cycle carboplatin is as effective as 2 cycles; if this approach is performed follow-up has to be standardized and a compliance of both patient and physician are mandatory.

Antineoplastic Agents↗

PubMed2002

Subcompartmentalization of HIV-1 quasispecies between seminal cells and seminal plasma indicates their origin in distinct genital tissues.

The mononuclear cells and plasma components of semen from HIV-infected subjects have been shown to contain HIV-1. However, there is very little information as to whether distinct HIV-1 population are present in these two seminal compartments or as to their tissue of origin. Phylogenetic analysis of nucleotide sequences of the C2-V5 region of the HIV-1 gp120 from HIV-1 RNA isolated from seminal cells and seminal plasma of five subjects indicates that the HIV-1 population derived from seminal plasma was distinct from that present in seminal cells. Such subcompartmentalization of HIV-1 between seminal cells and seminal plasma was detected as early as 3 months after seroconversion and persisted up to 38 months following seroconversion. Furthermore, comparison of HIV-1 sequences between testis and prostate tissues showed distinct HIV-1 populations in these tissue compartments. In situ real-time (Taqman) PCR analysis of prostate and testis tissues indicated that T lymphocytes were the predominant cells infected with HIV-1 in both of these tissues. Since seminal plasma is derived from prostate and most of the seminal cells originate from the rete testis and epididymis, these results are consistent with the idea that HIV-1 in seminal plasma is derived from the prostate, while HIV-1-infected cells in semen originate mostly from the rete testis and epididymis. These findings provide for the first time evidence of subcompartmentalization of HIV-1 in male genital organs and suggest that intervention strategies such as vasectomy may not prevent sexual transmission.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed1989

Immunolocalization and concentrations of inhibin alpha in the ovine testis and excurrent duct system.

Inhibin was localized in the ovine testis, excurrent ducts, and accessory sex glands by using a rabbit antiserum against a synthetic polypeptide representing the first 30 amino acids of porcine inhibin alpha-subunit. Concentrations of inhibin in fluids entering and leaving the epididymis also were determined in a radioimmunoassay using the same antibody. In the testis, immunostaining of inhibin was conspicuous in the seminiferous epithelium. Leydig cells occasionally were stained and the tunica media of blood vessels always was stained. Intense staining was observed in the epithelia lining the rete testis and ductuli efferentes. Staining also was intense in the epithelium of the initial segment and proximal caput epididymidis, and became less intense along the length of the epididymis. These observations were consistent with concentrations of inhibin in rete testis fluid (8.2 pmol/ml) entering the ductuli efferentes and in cauda epididymal plasma (0.67 pmol/ml) leaving the epididymis. Epithelia of ampullary and vesicular glands and of some prostatic acini were positively stained, but bulbourethral glands were never stained. Adrenal cortex, some proximal convoluted tubules in the kidney, and transitional epithelium of the urethra also were stained. Based on radioimmunoassay data and fluid flow rates for the ram, it was concluded that almost all of the 328 pmol inhibin that enters the ductuli efferentes daily is endocytosed in the proximal parts of the excurrent duct system. The physiological role(s) for inhibin, or inhibin-like peptides, in the excurrent duct system remains speculative.

Adrenal Glands↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Steroidogenesis and testosterone metabolism in cultured principal cells from the ram epididymis.

To determine if ram principal cells can synthesize or metabolize testosterone, or metabolize other steroids present in rete testis fluid, principal cells from the initial segment, central caput, and proximal corpus epididymidis were isolated and cultured in a floating collagen matrix with medium containing 20% dialyzed rete testis fluid. In the first experiment, each matrix was washed twice in testosterone-free medium on day 2.8, transferred into culture medium containing 100 nM of a tritiated steroid and incubated for 4 hours at 34 C. The tritiated steroids were pregnenolone, 5-androstene-3 beta,17 beta-diol, progesterone, 4-androstene-3,17-dione, testosterone, and dihydrotestosterone. Since testosterone was not formed from 5-androstene-3 beta,17 beta-diol or 4-androstene-3,17-dione, testosterone synthesis by ram principal cells is unlikely Pregnenolone and 5-androstene-3 beta,17 beta-diol were not metabolized and only slight metabolism of dihydrotestosterone occurred. Progesterone, 4-androstene-3,17-dione, and testosterone were metabolized to 5 alpha-reduced products tentatively identified as 5 alpha-pregnane-3,20-dione and 5 alpha-pregnan-3 beta-ol-20-one and/or 5 alpha-pregnan-20 alpha-ol-3-one; 5 alpha-androstane-3,17-dione and 5 alpha-androstan-3 alpha-ol-17-one, and dihydrotestosterone, respectively. The second experiment evaluated testosterone metabolism by both cultured principal cells and minced epididymal tissue. On day 1 of culture, during 12 hours the accumulation of dihydrotestosterone in medium from cells of the central caput was 48 X and 1.1 X that in medium from cells of the initial segment and proximal corpus epididymidis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Type I and type II interleukin-1 receptor expression in rat, mouse, and human testes.

Despite clear indications of interleukin-1 (IL-1) action on Sertoli and germ cells, previous studies failed to detect IL-1 receptors (IL-1R) within the seminiferous tubules. Here, we investigated the existence of the type I signaling receptor (IL-1RI) and the type II decoy receptor (IL-1RII) mRNAs within the testis. Polymerase chain reaction analysis showed the presence of both receptor mRNAs in isolated rat, mouse, and human somatic testicular cells (macrophages, Leydig, Sertoli, and peritubular cells). While also present in rat and mouse isolated pachytene spermatocytes and early spermatids, these receptor mRNAs were not found in human germ cells. The distribution of both IL-1R mRNAs was then examined in adult rat and mouse testis using light and electron microscopic in situ hybridization. No IL-1RI signal was detected in rat testis. In mouse testis, we did not find any signal for IL-1RII. In contrast, IL-1RI mRNA was detected in a wide variety of mouse testicular cells. Strong expression was observed in the rete testis area and high expression was seen over the epithelium of the epididymal duct and in interstitial cells, while lower labeling was detected in peritubular and Sertoli cells and in all germ cell types from spermatogonia to early spermatids; no signal was seen in late spermatids. That the IL-IR was also strongly expressed in the interstitium, the rete testis and efferent duct areas, and the epididymis was established using an autoradiography technique. Overall, our study strongly supports the hypothesis that IL-1 is a regulator of testicular function of prime importance.

Aged↗

PubMed1990

[Histochemical and structural characteristics of the testis of the vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus rotundus, Geoffrey, 1810)].

The testicular stroma of the vampire bat including the testicular capsula and the lamina propria of the seminiferous tubuli, was strongly PAS-positive. This observation was a possible indication of great amounts of structural glycogen and other glycoconjugates at the level of smooth muscle cells; elongated contractile cells and/or collagen frameworks of the tunica albuginea and tubular lamina propria. In the last the basement membranes of the seminiferous tubules were particularly strongly PAS positive, as an indication of their neutral mucosubstances structural composition, previously described (Malmi et al., 1987). The epithelium lining from the cavitary and surface rete testis complex showed low reactivities to mucosubstances; total proteins and lipids and oxidative enzymes studied. Although the apical granulation at the rete testis epithelium showed an intense PAS reactivity with hypothesis of glycoprotein secretion, through the rete. The PAS, Sudan Black B, NADH, MDH and LDH reactions of the testicular interstitium seem correlate to steroid metabolism (biosynthesis and secretion), at the Leydig cells level. The seminiferous epithelium generally had low reactions to all the histochemical studies realized. Particularly in the adbasal compartment the histochemical localizations of NADH diaphorase and LDH were possible related to glycolytic activities and general carbohydrates metabolism, both enzymes, and hydrogen transport, the NADH. The strong PAS, diastase and PAS, and alcian blue pH 2.5 and PAS reactions observed in the adluminal seminiferous epithelium compartment were directly related to the spermatids acrosomal glycoconjugates structuration. Also the SDH localization at this level seems to be related to the mitochondrial activities at the middle piece level in the late spermatids.

Animals↗