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PubMed1999

Analyses of a polyhydroxyalkanoic acid granule-associated 16-kilodalton protein and its putative regulator in the pha locus of Paracoccus denitrificans.

The polyhydroxyalkanoic acid (PHA) granule-associated 16-kDa protein (GA16 protein) of Paracoccus denitrificans was identified, and its corresponding gene was cloned and analyzed at the molecular level. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of GA16 protein revealed that its structural gene is located downstream from the PHA synthase gene (phaCPd) cloned recently (S. Ueda, T. Yabutani, A. Maehara, and T. Yamane, J. Bacteriol. 178:774-779, 1996). Gene walking around phaCPd revealed two new open reading frames (ORFs) possibly related to PHA synthesis, one of which was the phaPPd gene, encoding GA16 protein, and the other was the phaRPd gene, encoding a protein that is putatively involved in the regulation of the expression of phaPPd. Overproduction of PhaPPd was observed in Escherichia coli carrying phaPPd, but the overproduction was not observed in the presence of phaRPd. Coexpression of phaPPd and PHA biosynthesis genes in E. coli caused increases in both the number of poly-(3-hydroxybutyric acid) (PHB) granules and PHB content and caused decreases in both the size of the granules and the molecular weight of PHB. GA16 protein was considered a phasin protein. The phaRPd gene had significant similarities to stdC, a possible transcriptional factor of Comamonas testosteroni, as well as to other ORFs of unknown function previously found in other PHA-synthetic bacteria.

Acyltransferases↗

PubMed2002

Family shuffling of a targeted bphA region to engineer biphenyl dioxygenase.

In this work we used a new strategy designed to reduce the size of the library that needs to be explored in family shuffling to evolve new biphenyl dioxygenases (BPDOs). Instead of shuffling the whole gene, we have targeted a fragment of bphA that is critical for enzyme specificity. We also describe a new protocol to screen for more potent BPDOs that is based on the detection of catechol metabolites from chlorobiphenyls. Several BphA variants with extended potency to degrade polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were obtained by shuffling critical segments of bphA genes from Burkholderia sp. strain LB400, Comamonas testosteroni B-356, and Rhodococcus globerulus P6. Unlike all parents, these variants exhibited high activity toward 2,2'-, 3,3'-, and 4,4'-dichlorobiphenyls and were able to oxygenate the very persistent 2,6-dichlorobiphenyl. The data showed that the replacement of a short segment (335TFNNIRI341) of LB400 BphA by the corresponding segment (333GINTIRT339) of B-356 BphA or P6 BphA contributes to relax the enzyme toward PCB substrates.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2003

Characterization of the 4-carboxy-4-hydroxy-2-oxoadipate aldolase gene and operon structure of the protocatechuate 4,5-cleavage pathway genes in Sphingomonas paucimobilis SYK-6.

The protocatechuate (PCA) 4,5-cleavage pathway is the essential metabolic route for degradation of low-molecular-weight products derived from lignin by Sphingomonas paucimobilis SYK-6. In the 10.5-kb EcoRI fragment carrying the genes for PCA 4,5-dioxygenase (ligAB), 2-pyrone-4,6-dicarboxylate hydrolase (ligI), 4-oxalomesaconate hydratase (ligJ), and a part of 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconate-6-semialdehyde dehydrogenase (ligC), we found the ligK gene, which encodes 4-carboxy-4-hydroxy-2-oxoadipate (CHA) aldolase. The ligK gene was located 1,183 bp upstream of ligI and transcribed in the same direction as ligI. We also found the ligR gene encoding a LysR-type transcriptional activator, which was located 174 bp upstream of ligK. The ligK gene consists of a 684-bp open reading frame encoding a polypeptide with a molecular mass of 24,131 Da. The deduced amino acid sequence of ligK showed 57 to 88% identity with those of the corresponding genes recently reported in Sphingomonas sp. strain LB126, Comamonas testosteroni BR6020, Arthrobacter keyseri 12B, and Pseudomonas ochraceae NGJ1. The ligK gene was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the gene product (LigK) was purified to near homogeneity. Electrospray-ionization mass spectrometry indicated that LigK catalyzes not only the conversion of CHA to pyruvate and oxaloacetate but also that of oxaloacetate to pyruvate and CO(2). LigK is a hexamer, and its isoelectric point is 5.1. The K(m) for CHA and oxaloacetate are 11.2 and 136 micro M, respectively. Inactivation of ligK in S. paucimobilis SYK-6 resulted in the growth deficiency of vanillate and syringate, indicating that ligK encodes the essential CHA aldolase for catabolism of these compounds. Reverse transcription-PCR analysis revealed that the PCA 4,5-cleavage pathway genes of S. paucimobilis SYK-6 consisted of four transcriptional units, including the ligK-orf1-ligI-lsdA cluster, the ligJAB cluster, and the monocistronic ligR and ligC genes.

Aldehyde-Lyases↗

PubMed1997

Identification of Burkholderia cepacia isolates from patients with cystic fibrosis and use of a simple new selective medium.

We evaluated 819 isolates referred to us as "Burkholderia cepacia" from cystic fibrosis (CF) clinics and research laboratories from five countries; 28 (3.4%) were not B. cepacia. A further 12 (1.5%) organisms appeared to be other Burkholderia species, but identification could not be confirmed by conventional means. The most prevalently misidentified organisms were Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, and Comamonas acidovorans. Many of these organisms grew on oxidation-fermentation polymyxin-bacitracin-lactose (OFPBL) and Pseudomonas cepacia agars, selective media currently used for B. cepacia isolation. We developed a new medium, B. cepacia selective agar (BCSA), which is more enriched for the growth of B. cepacia yet which is more selective against other organisms than currently available selective agars. A total of 190 of 191 (99.5%) isolates of B. cepacia from patients with CF grew on BCSA without vancomycin, whereas 100% grew on OFPBL agar and 179 (94.2%) grew on P. cepacia agar. Of 189 other gram-negative and gram-positive organisms tested, 10 (5.3%) grew on BCSA without vancomycin. The addition of vancomycin to BCSA lowered the false positivity rate to 3.7% without further inhibition of B. cepacia. The false positivity rates for OFPBL and P. cepacia agars were 19.6 and 13.8%, respectively. Isolates of B. cepacia from CF patients grew most quickly on BCSA, with 201 of 205 (98.0%) being readily visible within 24 h, whereas 182 (88.8%) grew on OFPBL agar and 162 (79.0%) grew on P. cepacia agar within 24 h. We propose that the use of BCSA will allow investigators to overcome many of the difficulties associated with the identification of B. cepacia and should be considered for use as a primary isolation agar for specimens from patients with CF.

Bacterial Typing Techniques↗

PubMed1999

Capillary electrophoresis-single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis for rapid identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other gram-negative nonfermenting bacilli recovered from patients with cystic fibrosis.

We used capillary electrophoresis-single-strand conformation polymorphism (CE-SSCP) analysis of PCR-amplified 16S rRNA gene fragments for rapid identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other gram-negative nonfermenting bacilli isolated from patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Target sequences were amplified by using forward and reverse primers labeled with various fluorescent dyes. The labeled PCR products were denatured by heating and separated by capillary gel electrophoresis with an automated DNA sequencer. Data were analyzed with GeneScan 672 software. This program made it possible to control lane-to-lane variability by standardizing the peak positions relative to internal DNA size markers. Thirty-four reference strains belonging to the genera Pseudomonas, Brevundimonas, Burkholderia, Comamonas, Ralstonia, Stenotrophomonas, and Alcaligenes were tested with primer sets spanning 16S rRNA gene regions with various degrees of polymorphism. The best results were obtained with the primer set P11P-P13P, which spans a moderately polymorphic region (Escherichia coli 16S rRNA positions 1173 to 1389 [M. N. Widjojoatmodjo, A. C. Fluit, and J. Verhoef, J. Clin. Microbiol. 32:3002-3007, 1994]). This primer set differentiated the main CF pathogens from closely related species but did not distinguish P. aeruginosa from Pseudomonas alcaligenes-Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes and Alcaligenes xylosoxidans from Alcaligenes denitrificans. Two hundred seven CF clinical isolates (153 of P. aeruginosa, 26 of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, 15 of Burkholderia spp., and 13 of A. xylosoxidans) were tested with P11P-P13P. The CE-SSCP patterns obtained were identical to those for the corresponding reference strains. Fluorescence-based CE-SSCP analysis is simple to use, gives highly reproducible results, and makes it possible to analyze a large number of strains. This approach is suited for the rapid identification of the main gram-negative nonfermenting bacilli encountered in CF.

Cystic Fibrosis↗

PubMed2000

Evaluation of autoSCAN-W/A and the Vitek GNI+ AutoMicrobic system for identification of non-glucose-fermenting gram-negative bacilli.

The autoSCAN-W/A (W/A; Dade Behring Microscan Inc., West Sacramento, Calif.) and Vitek AutoMicrobic System (Vitek AMS; bioMérieux Vitek Systems, Inc., Hazelwood, Mo.) are both fully automated microbiology systems. We evaluated the accuracy of these two systems in identifying nonglucose-fermenting gram-negative bacilli. We used the W/A with conventional-panel Neg Combo type 12 and Vitek GNI+ identification systems. A total of 301 isolates from 25 different species were tested. Of these, 299 isolates were identified in the databases of both systems. The conventional biochemical methods were used for reference. The W/A correctly identified 215 isolates (71. 4%) to the species level at initial testing with a high probability of >/=85%. The Vitek GNI+ correctly identified 216 isolates (71.8%) to the species level at initial testing with a high probability of >/=90%. After additional testing that was recommended by the manufacturer's protocol, the correct identifications of the W/A and Vitek GNI+ improved to 96.0 and 92.3%, respectively. The major misidentified species were Sphingomonas paucimobilis and Agrobacterium radiobacter in the W/A system and Acinetobacter lwoffii, Chryseobacterium indologenes, and Comamonas acidovorans in the Vitek GNI+ system. The error rates were 4.0 and 7.6%, respectively. The overall accuracy for both systems was above 90% if the supplemental tests were applied. There was no significant difference in accuracy (P > 0.05) between the two systems.

Automation↗

PubMed2001

Cellular fatty acid composition of Lautropia mirabilis.

Ten strains of Lautropia mirabilis (ATCC 51599(T) and nine phenotypically similar clinical isolates) were examined for cellular fatty acid (CFA) composition to evaluate their chemical relatedness to known bacterial species and groups. The CFAs were liberated from whole cells by base hydrolysis, methylated, and analyzed by gas-liquid chromatography. CFA profiles were generated by using a commericial software package (MIDI, Newark, Del.). All strains tested had an identical CFA profile characterized by major amounts of 16:1omega7c (41%) and 16:0 (44%); smaller amounts (1 to 4%) of 3-OH-10:0, 12:0, 14:0, 15:0, and 18:1 omega7c; trace amounts (<1%) of 10:0, 18:2 and 18:0; and no cyclopropane acids. This profile was similar to the CFA profiles of Acidovorax delafieldii, Comamonas terrigena, and strains of an unclassified Centers for Disease Control group designated weak oxidizer group 1. CFA analysis, when supplemented by phenotypic characterization, is useful for the identification of L. mirabilis isolates.

Bacterial Typing Techniques↗

PubMed2002

Characterization of unusual bacteria isolated from respiratory secretions of cystic fibrosis patients and description of Inquilinus limosus gen. nov., sp. nov.

Using a polyphasic approach (including cellular protein and fatty acid analysis, biochemical characterization, 16S ribosomal DNA sequencing, and DNA-DNA hybridizations), we characterized 51 bacterial isolates recovered from respiratory secretions of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Our analyses showed that 24 isolates belong to taxa that have so far not (or only rarely) been reported from CF patients. These taxa include Acinetobacter sp., Bordetella hinzii, Burkholderia fungorum, Comamonas testosteroni, Chryseobacterium sp., Herbaspirillum sp., Moraxella osloensis, Pandoraea genomospecies 4, Ralstonia gilardii, Ralstonia mannitolilytica, Rhizobium radiobacter, and Xanthomonas sp. In addition, one isolate most likely represents a novel Ralstonia species, whereas nine isolates belong to novel taxa within the alpha-PROTEOBACTERIA: Eight of these latter isolates are classified into the novel genus Inquilinus gen. nov. as Inquilinus limosus gen. nov., sp. nov., or as Inquilinus sp. The remaining 17 isolates are characterized as members of the family ENTEROBACTERIACEAE: The recovery of these species suggests that the CF lung is an ecological niche capable of supporting the growth of a wide variety of bacteria rarely seen in clinical samples. Elucidation of the factors that account for the association between these unusual species and the respiratory tract of CF patients may provide important insights into the pathophysiology of CF infection. Because accurate identification of these organisms in the clinical microbiology laboratory may be problematic, the present study highlights the utility of reference laboratories capable of identifying unusual species recovered from CF sputum.

Alphaproteobacteria↗

PubMed2006

Analysis of 525 samples to determine the usefulness of PCR amplification and sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene for diagnosis of bone and joint infections.

The 16S rRNA gene PCR in the diagnosis of bone and joint infections has not been systematically tested. Five hundred twenty-five bone and joint samples collected from 525 patients were cultured and submitted to 16S rRNA gene PCR detection of bacteria in parallel. The amplicons with mixed sequences were also cloned. When discordant results were observed, culture and PCR were performed once again. Bacteria were detected in 139 of 525 samples. Culture and 16S rRNA gene PCR yielded identical documentation in 475 samples. Discrepancies were linked to 13 false-positive culture results, 5 false-positive PCR results, 9 false-negative PCR results, 16 false-negative culture results, and 7 mixed infections. Cloning and sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons in 6 of 8 patients with mixed infections identified 2 to 8 bacteria per sample. Rarely described human pathogens such as Alcaligenes faecalis, Comamonas terrigena, and 21 anaerobes were characterized. We also detected, by 16S rRNA gene PCR, four previously identified bacteria never reported in human infection, Alkanindiges illinoisensis, dehydroabietic acid-degrading bacterium DhA-73, unidentified Hailaer soda lake bacterium, and uncultured bacterium clone HuCa4. Seven organisms representing new potential species were also detected. PCR followed by cloning and sequencing may help to identify new pathogens involved in mixed bone infection.

Arthritis, Infectious↗

PubMed2000

Polymicrobial tenosynovitis with Pasteurella multocida and other gram negative bacilli after a Siberian tiger bite.

Mammalian bites present a considerable clinical problem because they are often associated with bacterial infections. Pasteurella multocida is a microorganism that commonly infects both canine and small feline bites. Zoonotic infections developing after large feline bites have been recognised, although their reports are limited. We describe a 35 year old man who was bitten by a Siberian tiger and who developed infectious tenosynovitis secondary to P multocida, Bergeyella (Weeksella) zoohelcum, and Gram negative bacteria most like CDC group EF-4b and comamonas species. The latter three bacteria have not been isolated previously from large feline bite wounds.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Construction of a DNA probe to detect isoquinoline-degrading bacteria.

To facilitate the cloning of DNA encoding isoquinoline degradation an assay was developed that allowed the rapid visual scoring of the isoquinoline degradation phenotype of single colonies. Transposon mutagenesis of one of the isolates. Comamonas acidovorans IQ3, was performed using Tn5, and nine Isq-mutants deficient in the ability to utilise isoquinoline as the sole nitrogen source were isolated. These mutants were also incapable of utilising the first metabolite of the isoquinoline degradation pathway, 1-hydroxyisoquinoline, as the sole carbon source. For each Isq-mutant, the EcoRI fragment containing the Tn5 insertion was cloned into pBR322. Restriction and Southern analyses of the cloned DNA revealed that of the nine Isq-mutants, six contained Tn5 insertions in a common 8.9-kb EcoRI fragment derived from the wild type, C. acidovorans IQ3. The cloned DNA thought to be involved in the degradation of isoquinoline proved to be specific when used as a probe in colony hybridization to some bacteria possessing the ability to degrade isoquinoline.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗

PubMed1996

Isolation and characterization of resin acid degrading bacteria found in effluent from a bleached kraft pulp mill.

Thirteen resin acid degrading bacteria enriched on abietic or dehydroabietic acids were isolated from waste water from the aerated stabilization basin of a bleached kraft pulp mill. Standard biochemical tests were used to characterize each isolate. Each isolate was tested for its ability to degrade six abietane- and pimarane-type resin acids. Resin acid concentrations were determined by high pressure liquid chromatography and UV absorbance. Cluster analysis based on phenotypic characteristics identified two distinct clusters of degraders that differed in their ability to utilize carbohydrates as carbon sources. Fatty acid methyl ester analysis of representative isolates from each cluster identified A19-6a and D11-13 as Comamonas and Alcaligenes species, respectively. To determine genotypic relatedness, enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequences were used to amplify genomic DNA fragments from 10 isolates. These results supported the phenotypic analysis for all isolates tested except A19-5 and A19-6b. These two organisms were clustered closely together based on phenotype but had distinctly different banding patterns, suggesting that they are not related genotypically. All isolates degraded a subset of the six resin acid congeners. Isolates A19-3, A19-6a, A19-6b, and D11-37 were the most effective at degrading all six congeners.

Alcaligenes↗

PubMed2002

Characterization of tdt genes for the degradation of tricyclic diterpenes by Pseudomonas diterpeniphila A19-6a.

Resin acids are tricyclic diterpenes that are toxic to aquatic life when released in high concentrations in pulp mill effluents. These naturally formed organic acids are readily degraded by bacteria and fungi; nevertheless, many of the mechanisms involved are still unknown. We report the localization, cloning, and sequencing of genes for abietane degradation (9.18 kb; designated tdt (tricyclic diterpene) LRSABCD) from the gamma-Proteobacterium Pseudomonas diterpeniphila A19-6a. Using gene knockout mutants, we demonstrate that tdtL, encoding a putative CoA ligase, is required for growth on abietic and dehydroabietic acids. A second gene knockout in tdtD, encoding a putative cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, reduced the growth of strain A19-6a on abietic and dehydroabietic acids as sole sources of carbon and energy, but did not eliminate growth. The degree of homology between P450TdtD and P450TerpC, the closest known P450 homologue to TdtD, identifies TdtD as a new member of the P450 superfamily. Hybridization of six of the tdt genes to genomic DNA of a related resin acid degrading bacterium Pseudomonas abietaniphila BKME-9 identified tdt homologues in this strain that utilizes aromatic ring dioxygenase genes (dit) to open the ring structure of abietic and dehydroabietic acids. These results suggest the tdt and dit genes may function in concert to allow these Pseudomonas strains to degrade resin acids. Homologues of several of the tdt genes were detected in resin acid degrading Ralstonia and Comamonas species within the beta- and gamma-Proteobacteria.

Abietanes↗

PubMed2005

Characterization of floating activity of indigenous diesel-assimilating bacterial isolates.

Six diesel-degrading bacterial strains were isolated from oil-polluted sites located in central Taiwan. The floating activity of the isolates in an oil-supplemented liquid medium was monitored. Cell-surface hydrophobicity as well as cell-free and cell-residue emulsification activities were also investigated. Three isolates, identified as Gordonia alkanivorans CC-JG 39, Rhodococcus erythropolis CC-BC 04, and R. erythropolis CC-BC 11, were found to float and grow near the diesel layer on the surface. The other three isolates (namely, Comamonas testosteroni CC-CF3, Acinetobacter sp. CC-CF 5, and Sphingomonas yanoikuyae CC-CG 22) did not display floating activity, as they distributed uniformly in the liquid medium. Isolated cell walls of the floating strains appeared to settle at a lower sucrose density than the non-floating strains. The floating strains were also characterized by a higher cell-surface hydrophobicity and a higher cell-residue emulsification activity than the non-floating strains. In fact, the floating strains were thought to produce extracellular emulsifiers due to their higher supernatant emulsification activity than the non-floating strains. The floating activity of G. alkanivorans CC-JG 39 may be associated with the production of extracellular polymeric substances that formed an "air-bag" structure facilitating cell floating. The floating ability may also correlate with a high cellular hydrophobicity arising from unique cell wall compositions or cell-wall-bound surface active products.

Bacteria↗

PubMed2004

Genes involved in aniline degradation by Delftia acidovorans strain 7N and its distribution in the natural environment.

Aniline-degraders were isolated from activated sludge and environmental samples and classified into eight phylogenetic groups. Seven groups were classified into Gram-negative bacteria, such as Acidovorax sp., Acinetobacter sp., Delftia sp., Comamonas sp., and Pseudomonas sp., suggesting the possible dominance of Gram-negative aniline-degraders in the environment. Aniline degradative genes were cloned from D. acidovorans strain 7N, and the nucleotide sequence of the 8,039-bp fragment containing eight open reading frames was determined. Their deduced amino acid sequences showed homologies to glutamine synthetase (GS)-like protein, glutamine amidotransferase (GA)-like protein, large and small subunits of aniline dioxygenase, reductase, LysR-type regulator, small ferredoxin-like protein, and catechol 2,3-dioxygenase, suggesting a high similarity of this gene cluster to those in P. putida strain UCC22 and Acinetobacter sp. strain YAA. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing analyses of GS-like protein gene segments of other Gram-negative bacteria suggested that Gram-negative bacteria have aniline degradative gene that can be divided into two distinctive groups.

Aniline Compounds↗

PubMed1999

A study on the prevalence of gram-negative bacteria in bulk tank milk.

Bulk tank milk from 131 dairy herds in eastern South Dakota and western Minnesota were examined for coliforms and noncoliform bacteria. Coliforms were detected in 62.3% of bulk tank milk samples. Counts ranged from 0 to 4.7 log10 cfu/ml. The mean count was 3.4 log10 cfu/ml. Gram-negative noncoliform bacteria were observed in 76.3% of bulk tank milk. Counts ranged from 0 to 6.2 log10 cfu/ml. The mean count was 4.8 log10 cfu/ml. A total of 234 isolates from bulk tank milk were examined to species level; 205 isolates belonged to 28 species. Coliforms and gram-negative noncoliform bacteria accounted for 32.9 and 67.1% of the total isolates, respectively. Organisms such as Agrobacterium radiobacter, Bordetella spp., Comamonas testosteroni, Listonella damsela, Ochrobactrum anthropi, and Oligella urethralis were isolated from bulk tank milk in this study. These organisms have not been reported previously in bulk tank milk. A total of 116 isolates of Pseudomonas spp. were isolated from raw milk; 98 isolates belonged to nine Pseudomonas spp., and the remaining 18 isolates could not be identified to their species level. Pseudomonas was the most predominant genus. Pseudomonas fluorescens was the most predominant species isolated from bulk tank milk and accounted for 29.9% of all isolates examined. The results of the study suggest that counts of coliforms and noncoliform bacteria in bulk tank milk vary considerably. The isolates represent a wide variety of Gram-negative bacterial species. Examination of bulk tank milk for coliforms and noncoliform bacteria could provide an indication of current and potential problems associated with bacterial counts and milk quality.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Microbial degradation of nitrobenzene and mono-nitrophenol by bacteria enriched from municipal activated sludge.

Using a mixture of three mono nitrophenols as sole carbon, nitrogen and energy sources, mixed cultures were enriched from municipal activated sludge to degrade both nitrophenols and nitrobenzene. Bacterial growth and degradation rate could be increased by supplementing the medium with 0.1% YE. Microorganisms were isolated from the nitrophenols enrichment, and they were identified as strains of Comamonas testosteroni and Acidovorax delafieldii. These strains showed broad degradation ability toward nitrophenols and nitrobenzene.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗

PubMed1998

Interactions of "Limax amoebae" and gram-negative bacteria: experimental studies and review of current problems.

Free-living amoebae can harbour bacteria inside their cysts giving them a microhabitat and protecting them from disinfectants. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential importance of "Limax amoebae" as vectors for environmental and nosocomial bacteria in a hospital. It was shown that free-living amoebae are ubiquitous in the investigated hospital, occur syntopically with facultative human pathogens (Comamonas acidovorans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and may serve as hosts not only for these but also for bacteria isolated from clinical specimens (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa); temperature is apparently of crucial importance for the interactions between these microorganisms. Recent studies have shown that "Limax amoebae" apart from acting as protective hosts, may also play a role for the thermotolerance, invasiveness and antibiotic-resistance of bacteria. Considering also the reduced immune-status of many patients, this "symbiosis" of free-living amoebae and bacteria might still be of underestimated hospital-hygienic importance.

Acanthamoeba↗