Assessment of nutrient requirements for infant formulas.
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Humans↗
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Docosahexaenoic acid status of term infants fed breast milk or infant formula containing soy oil or corn oil.
The objective of this study was to compare circulating lipid docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3), DHA] levels in term infants fed a powdered (CORN oil) or liquid (SOY oil) infant formula or human milk (HM). Infants whose mothers chose not to breast feed were randomly assigned to the CORN or SOY formula group. The formula fat differed in linolenic acid [18:3(n-3)] content: it was 0.8% for the CORN and 4.8% for the SOY. Linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)] was 31.5 and 34.2% fatty acids in the CORN and SOY formula, respectively. The formulas or HM were fed from birth through 8 wk of age, and growth and the plasma and red blood cell (RBC) phospholipid fatty acid composition was determined at 3 d, 4 wk, and 8 wk of age. Growth did not differ among groups. The plasma phospholipid and RBC phosphatidylethanolamine DHA was similar in the CORN and SOY formula groups at all ages. Plasma and RBC phosphatidylethanolamine levels of DHA were significantly lower in infants fed the CORN or SOY formula than in infants fed HM during wk 4 and 8. Plasma and RBC 22:5(n-6) was not increased in the formula groups at any age. The formula content of linolenic acid had no effect on the RBC or plasma DHA levels of the infants. The biologic or functional significance of the lower plasma and RBC DHA in infants fed formula rather than HM is unknown. The need for a dietary source of DHA and specificity of plasma or RBC phospholipid DHA as a measure of desaturation and elongation of linolenic acid in developing organs remains uncertain.
Corn Oil↗
Growth characteristics of bifidobacteria in infant formulas.
Four species of bifidobacteria, Bifidobacterium bifidum (ATCC 15696), Bifidobacterium breve (ATCC 15700), Bifidobacterium infantis (ATCC 15697), and Bifidobacterium longum (ATCC 15708), were grown anaerobically at 37 degrees C in lactobacilli MRS broth with 0.5% cysteine-HC1 and inoculated at 2.5% into three types of infant formula (based on soy, or milk, or casein hydrolysate) and in nonfat milk followed by incubation at 37 degrees C for 24 h. In most cases, the logarithmic phase of growth for all species varied from the first 8 to 12 h postinoculation. Generation times for B. longum and B. breve were similar, and times for B. infantis were shortest, in all of the formulas. Trends for lactic acid production for all species in all the formulas were similar to trends for acetic acid production. Counts for formulas based on soy or milk were similar for all species except B. bifidum, and those for casein-hydrolyzed formula were always lowest for all species except B. bifidum, for which count was maximal with the formula based on soy. Results suggest that growth characteristics of bifidobacteria in infant formula were species specific and formula dependent and that growth was maximal in the formula based on milk.
Acetic Acid↗
Randomized trial of calcium glycerophosphate-supplemented infant formula to prevent lead absorption.
BACKGROUND: Although additional dietary calcium is recommended frequently to reduce the risk of lead poisoning, its role in preventing lead absorption has not been evaluated clinically. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to determine the safety and to estimate the size of the effect of calcium- and phosphorus-supplemented infant formula in preventing lead absorption. DESIGN: One hundred three infants aged 3.5-6 mo were randomly assigned to receive iron-fortified infant formula (465 mg Ca and 317 mg P/L) or the same formula with added calcium glycerophosphate (1800 mg Ca and 1390 mg P/L) for 9 mo. RESULTS: There was no significant difference between groups in the mean ratio of urinary calcium to creatinine, serum calcium and phosphorus, or change in iron status (serum ferritin, total iron binding capacity). At month 4, the median (+/-SD) increase from baseline in blood lead concentration for the supplemented group was 57% of the increase for the control group (0.04 +/- 0.09 compared with 0.07 +/- 0.10 micromol/L; P = 0.039). This effect was attenuated during the latter half of the trial, with an overall median increase in blood lead concentration from baseline to month 9 of 0.12 +/- 0.13 micromol/L for the control group and 0.10 +/- 0.18 micromol/L for the supplemented group (P = 0.284). CONCLUSIONS: Supplementation did not have a measurable effect on urinary calcium excretion, calcium homeostasis, or iron status. The significant effect on blood lead concentrations during the first 4 mo was in the direction expected; however, because this was not sustained throughout the 9-mo period we cannot conclude that the calcium glycerophosphate supplement prevented lead absorption in this population.
Calcium↗
Interlaboratory verified liquid chromatographic method for analysis of vitamins A and E in soy-based infant formula powder.
An interlaboratory verified, liquid chromatographic (LC) method is presented for the analysis of all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and retinyl palmitate in soy-based infant formula. The extraction procedure uses sample dehydration with magnesium sulfate followed by extraction with isopropanol, hexane-ethyl acetate (85 + 15, v/v). After evaporation and filtration, the sample extract is injected directly onto a normal-phase LC system with fluorescence detection. All-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and retinyl palmitate are quantitated isocratically with a mobile phase of hexane containing 0.50% (v/v) and 0.125% (v/v) isopropanol, respectively. A zero control reference material (ZRM) was spiked at 5 levels, with 5 replicate analyses of 1/2x, x, 2x, 4x, and 16x where "x" is the minimum level of 250 IU/100 kcal (vitamin A) and 0.7 IU/100 kcal (vitamin E) as specified in 21 Code of Federal Regulations 107.100. The following recoveries and RSD values represent an average (n = 25) of the 5 levels for each analyte: all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, 100% (RSD = 3.5%); retinyl palmitate, 97.2% (RSD = 2.1%). Two additional laboratories analyzed the fortified ZRM samples. Average recoveries (n = 24) of all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and retinyl palmitate at 4 levels were all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, 99.0% (RSD = 4.0%), and retinyl palmitate, 96.2% (RSD = 1.4%) at the second laboratory. Average recoveries (n = 24) of all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and retinyl palmitate at 4 levels were all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, 102% (RSD = 1.4%) and retinyl palmitate, 95.7% (RSD = 2.0%) at the third laboratory. In addition, 6 replicates of the same commercial soy-based infant formula powder were run by the 3 laboratories.
Algorithms↗
Fat content and fatty acid composition of infant formulas.
Fat content and fatty acid composition of 25 commercial infant formulas sold in the Federal Republic of Germany and of 3 home-made milk formulas were analysed, using gravimetry of extracted lipids and high-resolution capillary gas-chromatography. Results were compared with the composition of human milk. Fat contents of all commercial formulas were similar to human milk values and met current recommendations, but 2 home-made preparations were at the upper and lower limits of the recommended range. Milk formulas tended to contain higher percentages of saturated and lower ones of cis-monounsaturated and trans-isomeric fatty acids than human milk. Linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) content was similar to human milk in most products but deviated clearly from recommended values in 2 home-made mixtures. Alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3) values were often low in formulas, resulting a high n-6/n-3-ratios. In contrast to human milk, all formulas contained only minor amounts of the physiologically important long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids with 20 and 22 carbon atoms. Some seasonal variation in the content of palmitic (C16:0), oleic (C18:1n-9), linoleic and trans-fatty acids was found when five arbitrarily selected adapted formulas were analysed repeatedly over one year. The composition of a home-made formula made from fresh cow's milk was markedly different in winter and in summer, when percentages of saturated and trans-fatty acids were higher and of linoleic acid were lower. We conclude that the composition of most commercial formulas is better suited to meet the lipid requirements of young infants than the home-made preparations investigated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Dietary Fats↗
Heat resistance of Desulfotomaculum nigrificans spores in soy protein infant formula preparations.
The heat resistance of Desulfotomaculum nigrificans spores was determined in soy protein infant formula preparations. Methods of sporulation were developed and evaluated. D. nigrificans spores of highest heat resistance were produced in a 40% infusion of spent mushroom compost. Fraction-negative D121 degrees C-values obtained in modified soy formula were 25.8 min for spores of ATCC 7946 produced at 55 degrees C and 54.4 min for an isolate designated RGI 1, which was sporulated at 66 degrees C. From the fraction-negative D-values, z-values were obtained of 6.7 degrees C for ATCC 7946 and 9.5 degrees C for RGI 1. Survivor-curve D121 degrees C-values were 5.6 min for ATCC 7946 and 2.7 min for RGI 1 sporulated at 55 degrees C and heated in modified soy formula. Corresponding D121 degrees C-values in Butterfield phosphate buffer (pH 7.2) were 3.3 min (ATCC 7946) and 1.1 min (RGI 1). The z-values generated from survivor-curve D-values were similar to those obtained by using fraction-negative procedures. In all instances the inactivation kinetics appeared to be linear. The isolate designated RGI 1, when sporulated at 66 degrees C and heated in a modified infant soy formula, exhibited an extraordinary heat resistance far in excess of previous reports.
Bacillaceae↗
Comparative growth and biochemical response of very low birthweight infants fed own mother's milk, a premature infant formula, or one of two standard formulas.
Very low birthweight (VLBW) infants weighing less than 1,600 g at birth were fed their own mother's milk (OMM) or randomly assigned to receive one of three formulas: a "humanized" formula (SF), a partially modified casein-predominant cow's milk formula (CF), or a premature formula (PF). All infants were fed at 120 kcal/kg/day where possible. PF infants had significantly greater weight increments (28.0 g/day) than those on OMM (19.4 g/day), SF (18.9 g/day), and CF (18.2 g/day). Those on PF also had greater increments of length, head circumference, and skin-fold thickness than those on the other two formulas and greater length increments than those on OMM. Dynamic skinfold measurements suggested that no infants accumulated excessive amounts of interstitial fluid. Infants on the two standard formulas had significantly greater base deficits, whereas those on CF also had higher urea values. Those on OMM had lower phosphate and higher alkaline phosphatase values than the other groups. Thus VLBW infants fed a premature formula had better growth and fewer biochemical problems than those on standard formulas, whereas supplementation of OMM may be necessary to ensure optimal growth and bone mineralization.
Alkaline Phosphatase↗
Stimulation of immunity without alteration of oral tolerance in mice fed with heat-treated fermented infant formula.
OBJECTIVES: Little information is available on the properties of fermented milk formula intended to healthy infants. This study analyzes the effect of long-term ingestion of a heat-treated, fermented milk formula on the development of oral tolerance or systemic immune response to soluble antigens in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The C3H/HeN mice, fed with a heat-treated fermented (Bifidobacterium breve C50 and Streptococcus thermophilus 065) infant formula (htFF) or a matched control diet (control), were immunized with ovalbumin (OVA) with or without gavage of 20 mg OVA to induce tolerance or immunity, respectively. Systemic and local anti-OVA immune responses and intestinal barrier function were measured after 5 to 6 weeks. RESULTS: Oral tolerance to OVA developed similarly in htFF- and control-fed mice, attested to by the downregulation of OVA-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) G and IgE after oral OVA administration. In contrast, immunization with OVA led to significantly higher titers in htFF-fed mice than in control-fed mice (log2 IgG titers, 16.45 +/- 1.24 and 15.46 +/- 0.79, respectively; P = 0.012). Jejunal interferon gamma, interleukin 12p40 and interleukin 10 expressions were significantly higher in tolerized mice fed with htFF compared with those fed with the control diet. Mucosal to serosal intact horseradish peroxidase fluxes were lower in htFF-fed mice than in control-fed mice (39 +/- 8 and 118 +/- 38 ng/h x cm2, respectively; P < 0.0001), indicating that the htFF diet reinforces intestinal barrier capacity to macromolecules. CONCLUSIONS: In mice, htFF strengthens intestinal barrier and enhances systemic immune responses to antigens without interfering with the development of oral tolerance, suggesting a potential beneficial effect in host defence and vaccination.
Administration, Oral↗
Validated extraction and cleanup procedures for polychlorinated biphenyls and DDE in human body fluids and infant formula.
As part of an epidemiology study, extraction methods and extract cleanup procedures were developed and validated for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and DDE, an ubiquitous metabolite of DDT, in human milk, blood serum, and infant formula. Studies included quantitative and reproducible recovery of total lipids, and reproducible and reasonably high recoveries of these chlorinated compounds from the human body fluids and infant formula, including levels of environmental health interest. An extensive quality control and assurance program was designed for use with these methods. Some validation work on serum was done using radiolabeled 14C-Aroclor 1254. Dilution assays were developed to permit use of a constant procedure, which should minimize variability in results. Methods are based on selected organic solvent extraction and column chromatographic cleanup techniques and quantitation by electron capture gas chromatography (EC/GC). Using these extensively researched extraction and cleanup methods, the limits of detection for GC measurements were 10.0 and 2.00 ppb for PCBs and DDE, respectively, in milk and 4.00 and 0.80 ppb in serum.
Animals↗
Plasma vitamin E concentrations of older infants fed cow's milk or infant formula.
Nutrition of older infants, though important for optimal brain development, is inadequately studied. The beverage choice markedly influences nutrient intake, but little is known regarding nutrition status of older infants, particularly for vitamin E. This study assessed vitamin E intakes and plasma tocopherol concentrations in two groups of healthy infants, 8 to 13 months of age, who had consumed either cow's milk (n = 45) or milk-based formula (n = 55) for a minimum of the 3 preceding months. Mean (+/- SEM) vitamin E intake was significantly lower (p < or = 0.001) by the infants who had consumed cow's milk (CMF) than by infants who had consumed formula (FF); 4.1 +/- 0.25 mg/day and 10.9 +/- 0.57 mg/day, respectively. Mean (+/- SEM) intake of linoleic plus linolenic acids was significantly lower (p < or = 0.005) by CMF infants (3.4 +/- 0.2 g) than by FF infants (9.9 +/- 1.0 g), although mean (+/- SEM) dietary vitamin E to polyunsaturated fat ratio (E/PUFA ratio) was the same in both FF and CMF infants (1.3 +/- 0.1). Plasma alpha-tocopherol concentration (mean +/- SD) was significantly lower (p < or = 0.005) in CMF than in FF infants (0.86 +/- 0.28 mg/dl vs. 1.14 +/- 0.42 mg/dl, respectively). Dietary vitamin E intakes were positively correlated (p < or = 0.05) with plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations. No correlations were found between plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations and total fat intake, dietary E/PUFA ratios, erythrocyte polyunsaturated fatty acids > or = C18:2, or number of hours postprandial that blood was drawn.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Animals↗
Evaluation of plaque pH changes following oral rinse with eight infant formulas.
Inappropriate feeding habits have been identified as major factors associated with the development of baby bottle tooth decay or nursing caries. An in vivo/in vitro combination technique was developed to investigated the plaque pH changes associated with rinsing with eight different infant formulas. These eight formulas represented four categories: 1) formulas with iron, 2) formulas with low iron, 3) soy formulas 4) and protein hydrolyzate formulas (from the manufacturers Mead Johnson Nutritionals and Ross Laboratories). All formulas had the ability to reduce the pH significantly below the pre-rinse plaque pH. Furthermore, the average minimum pH for formulas from the two manufacturers did not differ within each formula category except for the soy-based formulas, where, rinsing with Isomil produced a significantly lower plaque pH than ProSobee. These results suggest that infant formulas are acidogenic and therefore may play a significant role in the development of baby bottle tooth decay.
Acids↗
Carnitine concentrations in the milk of different species and infant formulas.
Carnitine concentrations were measured in the milk of sheep, cows, goats, and horses, in human milk of term and preterm infants and in European infant formulas. There were significant species' differences in carnitine milk content. Acylcarnitine concentrations ranged from 13 to 47% of total carnitine. This may be related to differences in maternal and/or mammary gland metabolism. The concentration of long-chain acylcarnitine in milk was under 1% in all investigated species. In cow's milk, there was a decrease in acylcarnitine concentration during the first 2 months of lactation. In human milk, carnitine concentrations did not change during the 1st month postpartum, but maternal plasma carnitine concentrations increased and plasma concentrations of acylcarnitine were always lower than those in simultaneously sampled milk. Milk carnitine concentrations in mothers of premature infants were not different from those in mothers of term infants. European formulas based on cow's milk contained somewhat more carnitine than human milk. However, very low carnitine concentrations were found in soy-based or protein hydrolysate formulas. This may lead to nutritional carnitine deficiency in infants receiving these formulas without carnitine supplementation.
Animals↗
Relative zinc availability in human breast milk, infant formulas, and cow's milk.
The concentration and bioavailability of zinc was analyzed in 10 varieties of milk. The concentration of zinc averaged 4.1 microgram/ml in unprocessed (raw) cow's milk; fortified infant formulas contained about 3 to 5 microgram Zn/ml; human breast milk and processed cow's milk contained approximately 2 microgram Zn/ml; sweetened condensed milk contained 1.3 microgram Zn/ml, and reconstituted nonfat dry milk contained 0.4 microgram Zn/ml. The mean values for zinc bioavailability to rats were as follows: sweetened condensed milk = 66%; human breast milk 59.2%, processed cow's milk = 43.7 to 50.9%; unprocessed (raw) cow's milk = 42%; nonfat dry milk = 41.2%, and infant formulas = 26.8 to 39.5%. Assuming similar absorption of zinc in rats and humans, our experimental results provide some guidelines for estimating the quantity of zinc that would actually be absorbed from various types of milk.
Animals↗
High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of tocopherols in infant formulas.
A method for the simultaneous determination of alpha-tocopherol acetate and alpha-, delta-, and gamma-tocopherols by normal-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescent detector in infant formula is proposed. The values obtained in the determination of the analytical parameters: linearity, precision, limit of detection and accuracy (analysis of a standard reference material, SRM 1846), confirm the quality of the method. The proposed method is useful for the determination of alpha-, delta-, and gamma-tocopherols and alpha-tocopherol acetate in infant formulas at a low cost and in a total time of 2 h.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
High-performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light-scattering detection for the determination of phospholipid classes in human milk, infant formulas and phospholipid sources of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids.
We developed and validated a new high-performance liquid chromatographic method for the separation of phospholipid classes in human milk, infant formulas and phospholipidic sources of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) used in paediatric nutrition. Phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylserine and sphingomyelin were separated in less than 25 min using an Extrasil silica column (150 x 4.0 mm I.D., 3-microm particle size) by isocratic elution with a mixture of isopropanol-hexane-water. Phospholipids were determined by an evaporative light-scattering detector. Several chromatographic conditions were assayed to optimise the method, whose suitability is shown by the detection limits, linearity ranges and precision rates obtained. The main advantages of the proposed method are its speed and the direct determination of the main phospholipids present in human milk, infant formulas and the phospholipid sources of LC-PUFAs used in paediatric nutrition.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
Daily intake and urinary excretion of genistein and daidzein by infants fed soy- or dairy-based infant formulas.
Our aims were to measure isoflavone intake from soy- and dairy-based infant formulas and breast milk and to assess the ability of infants to digest and absorb soy isoflavones by measuring daily urinary excretion rates. We recruited 29 infants: 4 received soy-based formula and 25 received dairy-based formula. We collected pooled urine samples from 3-5 disposable diapers worn during a 24-h period and developed and validated methods for extracting isoflavones from the diapers. Infants were studied every 1 or 2 wk, starting at 2-6 wk of age and continuing until 16 wk. Only soy-based formulas contained isoflavones in concentrations detectable by HPLC (limits: 0.05 mg/L for liquids and 0.1 mg/kg for solids). Soy-based formulas provided a mean (+/-SEM) daily dose of isoflavones (genistein plus daidzein) of 3.2 +/- 0.2 mg/kg body wt, which remained fairly constant (CV: 12%) regardless of age < or = 16 wk. Isoflavones were measurable in all samples from soy-fed infants, but not in urine from dairy-fed infants. Daily isoflavone excretion rates varied little among infants [range of mean individual values (mg x kg(-1) d(-1)): daidzein, 0.37 +/- 0.03 to 0.58 +/- 0.06; genistein, 0.15 +/- 0.03 to 0.32 +/- 0.04] and did not change with age < or = 16 wk. The mean percentage of the daily intake recovered in the urine of soy-fed infants was 38 +/- 4% for daidzein and 13 +/- 3% for genistein, and remained constant with age. These values are similar to those for adults and indicate that young infants are able to digest, absorb, and excrete genistein and daidzein from soy-based formulas as efficiently as do adults consuming soy products.
Adult↗
Liquid chromatographic method for analysis of All-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and retinyl palmitate in soy-based infant formula using a zero-control reference material (ZRM) as a method development tool.
A liquid chromatographic method is described for analysis of all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate, tocopherols, and retinyl palmitate in soy-based infant formula. The vitamins are extracted in isopropyl alcohol and hexane--ethyl acetate without saponification and quantitated by normal-phase chromatography with fluorescence detection. All-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate and retinyl palmitate are quantitated isocratically with mobile phases of 0.5% (v/v) and 0.125% (v/v) isopropyl alcohol in hexane, respectively. Recoveries from zero control reference material soy-based formula averaged 97.2% (n = 25) for retinyl palmitate and 100% (n = 25) for all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate. Coefficients of variation ranged from 1.21 to 2.86% for retinyl palmitate and from 1.49 to 5.16% for all-rac-alpha-tocopheryl acetate. The method provides a rapid, specific, and easily controlled assay for analysis of vitamin A and vitamin E in fortified infant formula. Additionally, the method eliminates use of chlorinated solvents.
Anticarcinogenic Agents↗