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PubMed1980

The sciences in America, circa 1880.

For many years American science in the late 19th century was regarded as an intellectual backwater. This view derived from the assumption that the health of American science at the time was equivalent to the condition of pure science, especially pure physics. However, a closer look reveals that there was considerable vitality in American scientific research, especially in the earth and life sciences. This vitality is explainable in part by the natural scientific resources of the American continent but also in part by the energy given science from religious impulses, social reformism, and practicality. Furthermore, contrary to recent assumptions, the federal government was a significant patron of American science. The portrait of American science circa 1880 advanced in this article suggests that the nation's scientific enterprise was characterized by pluralism of institutional support and motive and that such pluralism has historically been the normal mode.

Government↗
PubMed2002

Respecting the dual sided identity of clinical pastoral education and professional chaplaincy: the phenomenological research model.

The question discussed in this volume opens a debate on what kind of scientific research model should be used by professional chaplaincy and Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE). The problem begins with the assumption that "becoming more scientific" means using the natural sciences approach employed by psychology; an approach unsuitable to account for factors relative to faith, spiritual and religious issues. I argue that CPE and professional chaplaincy need to be more scientific but not necessarily under the natural sciences model. Considering the predominance of that model in psychology, I believe pastors and chaplains should resist pressures to rely on the natural science model and adopt instead models that respect their dual sided identity. I conclude by suggesting that the phenomenological research model best allows investigation of patients' spiritual as well as psychological issues.

Health Care Reform↗
PubMed2001

Rationalizing 'folk medicine' in interwar Germany: faith, business, and science at "Dr. Madaus & Co.'.

The relationship between orthodox or mainstream medicine and heterodox or alternative practices has often been expressed in terms of dichotomies, such as science versus anti-science or rationality versus irrationality. By studying the history of a company producing herbal medicines and homoepathic remedies in Germany in the 1920s and 1930s, this paper attempts to create a more differentiated picture. 'Dr. Madaus & Co.' was founded in 1919 by the three sons of a free church minister and his wife, who practised as a non-licensed healer herself. The company not only sold medicines, it also produced journals and books promoting heterodox healing methods and contributing to ongoing health political debates, for example over compulsory vaccination programmes, human experimentation, quackery, and a general 'crisis of medicine'. Gerhard Madaus, a medical doctor and one of the three founders, published in 1938 a three-volume Textbook of Biological Healing Methods, turning folk medicine into science. The essay follows the rise of the Madaus family firm and interprets the story of 'Dr. Madaus & Co.' as an example of social rationalization, emphasizing the role of commercial operations in twentieth-century alternative medicine in Germany.

Commerce↗
PubMed1990

Bioethics and knowledge.

The acquisition of knowledge must be regarded as the first duty, as affirmed by Claude Bernard and Jacques Monod. It occupies a place in the forefront of other duties--respect for the individual and his liberty and dignity--to which the duty of knowledge must be subordinated. An attempt must be made to reconcile these diverse obligations. These three situations are described by stressing the importance of the principles that govern these studies: respect for the individual; respect for science; restriction of human experiments to what is strictly necessary; scrupulous assessment of the balance of risks and advantages; the human body is not an object of commerce; free and informed consent; solidarity between men.

Attitude↗
PubMed2002

Siblings or foes: what now in spiritual care research?

This article uses a sibling metaphor to outline the relationship between science and spirituality. This metaphor forms the backdrop for exploring several directions in spiritual care research. It argues that science and functional spirituality were born as siblings and need to dance now without either estrangement or incest, intent on measuring the material effects of excellent pastoral care.

Chaplaincy Service, Hospital↗
PubMed2002

Spirituality and data: the need for a new paradigm.

My ministry has meaning for me, and I trust, for others whom I serve. In times past, that meaning was sufficient testimony regarding its significance. Today, however, more scientific evidence seems needed--although I resist it and am skeptical that in the end science can really help us. Yet, the task we face, the central question facing the profession is, "Are there true, definable outcomes that can be validated when our primary task is dealing with matters of the heart and soul?"

Chaplaincy Service, Hospital↗
PubMed1998

[Positivism and medical science in Rio Grande do Sul: the Faculdade de Medicina de Porto Alegre].

The article analyzes conflicts and interests at one of Rio Grande de Sul's main centers for medical science, the Faculdade de Medicina de Porto Alegre. It explores the meaning and impact of the emergence of this specific, exclusive field of knowledge in a state where positivist principles of professional freedom were adopted by successive administrations during the early period of the Republic. Physicians there launched an entrenched war to uphold the principles of science over faith and politics, challenging the positivism of the party which held power in Rio Grande do Sul throughout the years. This perspective grew and developed in a climate of conflict and doubts among physicians, within a political context that differed from the rest of Brazil.

Brazil↗
PubMed2000

[The Jesuit Athanasius Kircher and his organum mathematicum].

P. Athanasius Kircher SJ (1602-1680) was a man of great erudition who carried out research in both the natural sciences and the humanities. He drew one of the first maps of the moon, performed microscopic studies of blood, worked on hieroglyphics and described China. He also invented the so-called Organum mathematicum. The device (located in Florence) has nine compartments containing wooden slats devoted to various mathematical subjects: arthmetic, geometry, fortifications, chronology, horography, astronomy, steganography (encryption) and music.

History, 17th Century↗
PubMed1999

The origins and evolution of bioethics: some personal reflections.

Bioethics was officially baptized in 1972, but its birth took place a decade or so before that date. Since its birth, what is known today as bioethics has undergone a complex conceptual metamorphosis. This essay loosely divides that metamorphosis into three stages: an educational, an ethical, and a global stage. In the educational era, bioethics focused on a perceived "dehumanization" of medicine by the rising power of science and technology. Remedies were sought by introducing humanities, ethics, and human "values" into the medical curriculum. Ethics was one among the humanistic disciplines, but not the dominant one. In the second era, ethics assumed a dominant role as ever more complex dilemmas emerged from the rapid pace of biological research. As such dilemmas were applied to medical practice, the need for a more rigorous and more formal analysis of their moral status was clear. Philosophically-trained ethicists had an obvious role. They began to teach, write, and profoundly influence medical education and practice. In the third -- and present -- period, the breadth of problems has become so broad that ethicists must, themselves, draw on disciplines well beyond their expertise -- e.g., law, religion, anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, and the like. The era of bioethics as a global enterprise is upon us. The original hope for humanizing medicine has not been overtly successful; however, much has been accomplished of value to patients, the profession, and society. Medical morality has been transformed into a formal, systematic study of a whole range of issues of the greatest significance to humanity. Now the major challenge is one of identity, or inter-relationships and connections between the theoretical and the practical. Bioethics has outgrown its beginnings.

Academies and Institutes↗
PubMed2002

Rediscovering mystery and wonder: toward a narrative-based perspective on chaplaincy.

Should chaplaincy be scientific? The answer is a resounding yes! Science is not the enemy of chaplaincy any more than it is the enemy of theology. It is necessary and therapeutically vital that chaplains strive to base their theory and practice on appropriate and well-researched evidence. The substantial question, however, is: What actually constitutes acceptable evidence, who decides and why?

Chaplaincy Service, Hospital↗
PubMed2001

[Scientific ethics and frozen embryos].

BACKGROUND: Scientific Ethics is the theory and praxis of decisions. Philosophical Ethics is presented as the theory and praxis of the good. As the good differs among cultures, Philosophical Ethics is dependent on the endo-cultural good conception. The decision (included that one of adhesion or not to a world vision) depends on neuro-psychic specific factors: i) cognitive factors that include mostly the knowledge of the alternatives and their consequences and the ideological or religious conception of good in relation to the alternatives; ii) affective factors that make alternatives pleasant, unpleasant or neutral, attractive, repulsive or neutral; iii) emotional factors that associate to alternatives anger, peace or neutrality, sadness, happiness or neutrality; iv) value factors that assign importance, triviality or neutrality to alternatives, or assign them significance, irrelevancy or neutrality. There are unspecific factors such as the psychic energy, desire or others. Mixed factors such as attitude, motivation, intention and others. Scientific Ethics deals with the mind as a materio-energetic process which is different from the soul, eggs and embryos of any species are full individuals of that species, because, they have initiated a copy of their genome that specify, give autonomy and define them as individuals. For Scientific Ethics to leave frozen embryos like that for ever, to defrost and get rid of them or to use their cells for science are synonymous of killing them. To defrost them to use their cells as stem cells for somatic cell therapy or to implant them into uteri to continue their development is to maintain alive their cells, but only the implantation allows their maintenance as individuals, thus, being the only compatible with the Christian ethics. The compatibility of these alternatives with other ethics is discussed.

Cryopreservation↗
PubMed2002

Research or perish?

The opportunity for sound pastoral care research is not served by the "all or nothing" approach. Professional chaplains whose training includes a thorough orientation to the research process are in a position to speak to the world of science about realities that are beyond physical research, and to the world of theology about realities that should be examined. Cloning, embryonic experimentation, and drug trials in Third World populations are among the areas without the voices of pastoral theologians. Closer to daily practice, research is an invaluable tool in helping chaplains improve their ministry.

Chaplaincy Service, Hospital↗
PubMed2003

Perceptions of science. The anatomical mission to Burma.

Until the 1830s, most Americans were unfamiliar with the images of anatomy. Then a small vanguard of reformers and missionaries began to preach, at home and around the world, that an identification with the images and concepts of anatomy was a crucial part of the civilizing process. In his essay, Sappol charts the changes in the perception of self that resulted from this anatomical evangelism. Today, as anatomical images abound in the arts and the media, we still believe that anatomical images show us our inner reality.

Anatomy↗
PubMed1989

From Daedalus to Mengele: the dark side of human genetics.

Until recently, the role of scientists in society has been considered sacrosanct. Wherever scientists had been involved in crimes, either the crimes or the quality of science was denied (that is, the science was considered merely pseudoscience). As a result it has been claimed that science can only flourish in democracies but is doomed in other states. So far experience contradicts this opinion. In this paper I discuss the origins of the view that scientists and geneticists in particular, are sacrosanct. I trace it back to the earliest mythological scientists, such as Daedalus and Dr. Faustus. I view the well-known Dr. Mengele as a successor in this tradition.

Bible↗
PubMed2002

The search for truth: the case for evidence based chaplaincy.

Chaplaincy and medical science are in search of truth. Should chaplaincy become more scientific in response to health care reform? Yes is the answer. Chaplaincy ought to become more based in evidence for the following reasons. First, the health care culture is evidence based and chaplaincy needs to speak that language. Second, chaplaincy and science are not opposed. Third, tradition-driven chaplaincy already utilizes medical evidence. Fourth, spirituality is the domain of chaplaincy and other health care disciplines have provided the research in our domain. However, if chaplaincy becomes more scientific, it does not mean that chaplaincy will maintain or grow in its position in health care reform. Health care reform in relation to chaplaincy is driven more by values than evidence.

Evidence-Based Medicine↗