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PubMed1980

[Interrelationship between blood supply and motor-secretory reactions of the small intestine following interoceptive stimulation with acetylcholine].

Chronic experiments on dogs have shown that irrigation of an isolated strip of the ileum with an acetylcholine solution (5.10-5 g/ml, 20 ml for 30--35 s) first changes its blood supply and then its motor-secretory responses. Initial changes in the blood supply were both positive and negative (1--2 min) and did not correlate in all the cases with changes in organ specific functions. Returning to the initial level was recorded in most experiments simultaneously after 40--45 minutes. In some of them, however, a repeated increase (for 15--20 min) in the blood supply was seen without any changes in motility or secretion.

Acetylcholine↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The interoceptive properties of the vestibular apparatus (a systems analysis of vestibular-oculomotor interaction)].

Modern views about physiological functions of vestibular system are submitted, their contradictions are picked out. The result of development of experimental and clinical vestibulometry till last decades at the foundation of critical estimation of effectiveness of different methods of vestibular receptor's stimulation are summed up. It is proposed to consider vestibular apparatus only as structural sensory element of eye's moving functional system at the foundation of cybernetics' principles of physiological function's regularity. It is proposed to estimate vestibular function as a part of the whole afferent stream in system, which hasn't their own way at effector neurone once which determines together with proprioceptive afferentation internal system's status. Methodological principles of further research of vestibular apparatus and vestibular function are determined.

Animals↗
PubMed1983

Behavioral analogues of anxiety. Animal models.

In the absence of fully characterized biological indexes, anxiety is at present measured as unpleasant effects reported verbally by patients. Because of the subjective nature of the syndrome, animal analogues have been difficult to design, but quests for new anxiolytics and a deeper understanding of the neurobiology of anxiety have fostered the development of several animal models. Usually, animals are exposed to exteroceptive or interoceptive stimuli which can be interpreted as capable of causing anxiety in humans. Then, the animals are observed for responses or behavioral deficits resulting from those stimuli in order to provide an index of anxiety. Behavioral responses that are reliably produced by those stimuli and that are also antagonized by anxiolytic drugs are accepted as analogues of anxiety. Exteroceptive stimuli, useful in this respect, consist of a variety of noxious treatments such as exposure to conflict-situations or unavoidable electric shock, whereas interoceptive stimuli consist of treatment with anxiogenic drugs or electrical stimulation of selected brain areas. Elicitation of unconditioned behavior or changes in the rate of conditioned (learned) responding have been employed as measures of anxiety responses following application of either exteroceptive or interoceptive stimuli. These measures, although useful in detecting anxiolytic drugs, possess several weaknesses. They suffer from difficulties in obtaining quantitative and objective data, they do not differentiate between anxiety and stress or fear, they are unable to measure further deterioration of behavior expected to occur when more potent anxiogenic stimuli are tested and they often present difficulty in differentiating direct motor effects of a number of stimuli are not related to anxiety. More recently, interest in the development of other analogues of anxiety has led to the use of drug-discrimination paradigms. In this approach, interoceptive discriminative stimuli, produced by anxiogenic drugs, are used as analogues of anxiety in animals. As an example of this approach, data are reviewed showing that pentylenetetrazol, an anxiogenic drug in humans, produces interoceptive stimuli which can be readily discriminated by rats. Further, these stimuli can be easily quantified through dose-response analysis. All known anxiogenic drugs generalize to pentylenetetrazol-induced interoceptive discriminative stimuli. Similarly, other anxiety-provoking situations in humans, such as withdrawal from dependence on benzodiazepines, also generalize to the pentylenetetrazol-induced stimuli. Alternatively, all known anxiolytic drugs antagonize these stimuli with a relative potency similar to

Animals↗
PubMed1987

The changing nature of agoraphobic fears.

Recent factor analytic studies have emphasized the importance of both somatic and situational fears in agoraphobia. Franklin (1980) proposed a developmental model of agoraphobic fears in which somatic changes (interoceptive fears), and feared consequences such as panic (outcome fears), produce situational fears through misattribution. Five hypotheses derived from this model were tested on 60 agoraphobics who rated their original and current fears. In all subjects interoceptive and outcome fears relating to panic attacks developed before situational fear and avoidance. Initially outcome fears were significantly greater than interoceptive fears, which were in turn significantly greater than situational fears. Over time situational fears increased significantly, eventually equalling outcome fears, and exceeding interoceptive fears. Panic attack frequency and severity also reduced significantly. All hypotheses were confirmed and the implications for research and treatment are outlined.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Cocaine-induced locomotor activity and cocaine discrimination in dopamine D2 receptor mutant mice.

RATIONALE: Dopamine (DA) D2-like antagonists block several effects of cocaine, including its locomotor stimulant and interoceptive discriminative-stimulus effects. Because these compounds generally lack selectivity among the D2-like DA receptors, the specific roles of the subtypes remain unclear. OBJECTIVES: DA D2 receptor knockout (DA D2R KO), heterozygous (HET), and wild-type (WT) mice were used to study the role of D2 DA receptors in the effects of cocaine. Some effects of the relatively selective DA D2-like antagonist raclopride were also studied to further assess the role of D2 receptors. METHODS: DA D2R KO, HET, and WT mice were treated with cocaine (1-10 mg/kg) or vehicle, and their horizontal locomotor activity was assessed. The mice were also trained to discriminate i.p. injections of saline from cocaine (10 mg/kg) using a two-response key, fixed-ratio-20 response, food-reinforcement procedure. A range of doses of cocaine (1.0-17 mg/kg) was administered before 15-min test sessions. RESULTS: Both DA D2R KO and HET mice showed reduced levels of horizontal activity relative to WT mice. Cocaine dose dependently stimulated activity in each genotype, with the highest level of activity induced in the DA D2R WT mice. All three genotypes acquired the discrimination of 10 mg/kg cocaine; tested doses of 1.0-10.0 mg/kg produced dose-related increases in the number of cocaine-appropriate responses. Raclopride, at inactive to fully active doses (0.1-1.0 mg/kg), did not fully substitute for cocaine. Raclopride dose dependently shifted the cocaine dose-effect curve to the right in DA D2R WT and HET mice. However, in DA D2R KO mice, raclopride was inactive as an antagonist. CONCLUSIONS: The present data indicate an involvement of D2 DA receptors in the locomotor-stimulating effects and the interoceptive discriminative-stimulus effects of cocaine in WT subjects. However, the D2 receptor is not necessary for the effects, suggesting redundant dopaminergic mechanisms for the discriminative-stimulus interoceptive effects of cocaine.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

A role for hippocampus in the utilization of hunger signals.

The hippocampus is generally regarded as an important anatomical substrate for learning and memory (e.g., Eichenbaum, Otto, & Cohen, Behavioral and Neural Biology, 57, 2-36, 1992; Squire, Psychological Review, 99, 195-231, 1992). In the present research, we provide evidence that the hippocampus is also involved with another function--utilization of hunger state signals. Rats with selective ibotenate lesions of the hippocampus were found to be impaired in their ability to discriminate between the interoceptive sensory consequences of food deprivation and satiation. At the same time the ability of these rats to discriminate between different exteroceptive cues was unaffected. These results suggest that deficits in discriminative performance were specific to interoceptive state stimuli. In addition, hippocampal-damaged rats also seemed unable to use their food deprivation stimuli as signals to engage in normal feeding behavior. Our results argue that although the hippocampus may be important for learning and memory processes, it also deserves consideration as a neural substrate for the regulation of food intake and perhaps other functions which involve interoceptive signals.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

A psychometric reanalysis of the Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire.

The psychometric properties of the 27-item Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire (APPQ) were evaluated in 1930 outpatients with DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders. Although prior findings of a 3-factor latent structure were upheld in several replications (Social Phobia, Agoraphobia, Interoceptive), three items failed to load on their predicted factor (Interoceptive). Multiple-groups CFAs indicated that the measurement properties of the APPQ were invariant in male and female patients, with the exception of an intercept of one item from the Agoraphobia scale which evidenced bias against females. The three APPQ dimensions were consistently associated with high levels of scale reliability and factor determinacy. Strong evidence of concurrent validity of the Social Phobia and Agoraphobia factors was obtained in relation to interview and questionnaire measures. Although the Interoceptive factor was more strongly related to criterion measures of anxiety sensitivity and fear of panic than Social Phobia, the Agoraphobia factor had the strongest relationships with these validity indices. The results are discussed in regard to psychometric implications for the APPQ and conceptual issues pertaining to the discriminant validity of fear of agoraphobic situations and fear of sensation-producing activities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Circuits and mechanisms governing hypothalamic responses to stress: a tale of two paradigms.

The results of recent studies support a partitioning of stress models into at least two basic classes. While these have been referred to as 'systemic' and 'neurogenic', we would suggest that the terms interoceptive and exteroceptive, respectively, are more apt descriptors. This is based on the similarities in the overall patterns of activational responses seen as a consequence of exposure to a range of perturbations in the internal versus external environments. While stressors of each class may share in common such fundamental features as a capacity to enlist certain PVH effector populations and medullary catecholamine-containing neurons, both the capacity to involve specific output neuron classes and the dependence of hypothalamic effects on the integrity of aminergic afferents in at least some interoceptive and exteroceptive models, are clearly differential. The available evidence suggests that interoceptive stress effects on PVH effector populations may be conceived essentially as simple reflex responses, mediated at a subcortical level by cell groups and associated circumventricular organs that comprise the core of a system involved in the processing of visceral sensory information. Based on the general pattern of acute footshock-induced Fos expression and commonalities of cellular activation profiles seen in this and other acute exteroceptive paradigms, it seems a reasonable assumption that pathways that convey somatosensory/nociceptive information to the PVH are apt to mediate adaptive visceromotor responses in these models. Multiple candidates for such roles have been identified at various levels of what may be viewed as the ascent of the spinothalamic pathway through the brainstem and thalamus, and on through the limbic forebrain and hypothalamus. Dissecting the relative contributions of these in determining PVH output will speak to important conceptual issues concerning the extent to which the affective and visceromotor responses to exteroceptive stressors are organized, and the level(s) at which these different avenues of emotional expression may be integrated.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The efficacy of habituation in decreasing subjective distress among high anxiety-sensitive college students.

While there is mounting evidence that the concept of anxiety sensitivity (AS) is linked to the expression of anxiety (specifically, panic), there has been little research comparing the efficacy of interoceptive exposure alone with interoceptive exposure coupled with cognitive restructuring among high AS participants. The present investigation addressed this issue in a sample of high anxiety-sensitive college students (scores above 29 on the Anxiety Sensitivity Index). Participants were randomly assigned to receive either five consecutive trials of voluntary hyperventilation or five consecutive trials of hyperventilation with cognitive restructuring instructions. It was expected that while repeated hyperventilation would be associated with a significant reduction in self-reported anxiety, catastrophic cognitions, and somatic sensations across trials, the greatest reduction in symptoms would occur with the addition of cognitive restructuring. These predictions were partially supported. As expected, high AS participants evidenced significant decreases in anxiety symptoms when habituation was accompanied by cognitive restructuring. Contrary to predictions, however, interoceptive exposure alone was not effective in reducing anxious symptoms. These results suggest that brief habituation alone may not be an effective strategy for high AS participants and are discussed as providing further support for a cognitive model of anxiety.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1978

Body awareness in anorexia nervosa: disturbances in "body image" and "satiety".

Patients with anorexia nervosa have been shown previously to display distortions in body image perception. Bruch has postulated that these disturbances as well as disturbances in interoception are meaningfully related to the development of the syndrome. We hypothesized that disturbances in body image, as measured by a distorting photograph technique, and interoception, as measured by a satiety-aversion to sucrose test, should be demonstrable in anorexic patients vs. normal controls. Furthermore, these disturbances should be modifiable by external cues (looking at one's image in a mirror and ingesting isocaloric "high" and "low" calorie connotation meals). We also hypothesized that body image and interoceptive disturbances would be interrelated in the same individuals. Results indicated that patients with anorexia nervosa (N = 26) differed from normal controls (N = 16) in overestimating their body sizes (p = 0.06) and in failing to develop an aversion to the sucrose tastes (p less than 0.001). However, neither viewing one's image in a mirror nor ingesting both "high and "low" calorie connotation meals altered body size perception. Intrasubject body size estimates were very stable from week to week for the anorexic subjects (r = +0.75, p less than 0.001) but less for the controls (r = +0.45, p less than 0.05). The data revealed that overestimation of body size was closely related to the failure to develop an aversion to sucrose tastes in anorexic patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Progressive postnatal increases in Fos immunoreactivity in the forebrain and brain stem of rats after viscerosensory stimulation with lithium chloride.

Interoceptive signals have a powerful impact on the motivation and emotional learning of animals during stressful experiences. However, current insights into the organization of interoceptive pathways stem mainly from observation and manipulation of adults, and little is known regarding the functional development of viscerosensory signaling pathways. To address this, we have examined central neural activation patterns in rat pups after treatment with lithium chloride (LiCl), a malaise-inducing agent. Rat pups were injected intraperitoneally with 0.15 M LiCl or 0.15 M NaCl (2% body wt) on postnatal day (P)0, 7, 14, 21, or 28, perfused 60 to 90 min postinjection, and their brains assayed for Fos protein immunolabeling. Compared with saline treatment, LiCl increased Fos only slightly in the area postrema, nucleus of the solitary tract, and lateral parabrachial nucleus on P0. LiCl did not increase Fos above control levels in the central nucleus of the amygdala, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST), or paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus on P0 but did on P7 and later. Maximal Fos responses to LiCl were observed on P14 in all areas except the BNST, in which LiCl-induced Fos activation continued to increase through P28. These results indicate that central LiCl-sensitive interoceptive circuits in rats are not fully functional at birth, and show age-dependent increases in neural Fos responses to viscerosensory stimulation with LiCl.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Discriminative stimuli produced by clonidine: an investigation of the possible relationship to adrenoceptor stimulation and hypotension.

In a leverpressing operant procedure, male rats were trained to respond for food reinforcement on one lever after an injection of clonidine (0.04 mg/kg) and to respond on an alternate lever for food reinforcement after an injection of saline. All 36 rats learned to discriminate the drug reliably from saline, thereby indicating that clonidine produces discriminative interoceptive stimuli. The discriminative stimulus was both dose- and time-dependent, with an ED50 of 0.018 mg/kg and an optimum time of action occurring from 15 to 60 min after injection. Although clonidine produced a reduction in response rate, this was not the basis of the discriminative stimulus as other drugs with similar depressant action did not generalize. The clonidine stimulus was dose-dependently antagonized by the alpha-2 adrenergic antagonist, yohimbine, whereas receptor antagonists of alpha-1 adrenergic, beta adrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic or opioid systems were ineffective in blocking the interoceptive stimulus produced by clonidine Lofexidine, guanabenz and methyldopa, all centrally acting hypotensive drugs that act through alpha-2 adrenoceptor mechanisms dose-dependently generalized to the clonidine cue, whereas hydralazine, minoxidil, propranolol and prazosin, hypotensive drugs acting through other mechanisms, did not generalize. These results suggest that clonidine produces interoceptive stimuli that are discriminable by rats and mediated through central alpha-2 adrenoceptor stimulation.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Disordered eating in adolescent males from a school-based sample.

OBJECTIVE: The authors sought to describe a sample of adolescent males who reported disordered eating, to explore whether males with disordered eating are overweight or obese, and to determine if patterns displayed by females would be replicated with a male sample. METHOD: Three school-based adolescent samples were selected. (1) 27 males reporting disordered eating (2) 27 physically matched controls, and (3) 27 randomly selected controls. RESULTS: Findings indicated that boys reporting disordered eating expressed greater body dissatisfaction, depression, restraint, and poorer interoceptive awareness compared to matched and randomly selected controls. Negative Emotionality and poor Interoceptive Awareness scores showed the strongest associations with eating pathology. Body mass index and Negative Emotionality scores showed the strongest relationships to restrained eating. DISCUSSION: Previous results for female adolescents were replicated, suggesting that findings for females can be generalized to males. Disordered eating appears to exist in the absence of significant weight problems in adolescent males.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Assessment instrument for panic disorder that includes fear of sensation-producing activities: the Albany Panic and Phobia Questionnaire.

A set of items was developed to assess fear of activities which produce physical sensations (e.g., exercise) based on clinical observations that individuals with panic disorder fear such activities in addition to agoraphobic situations. Factor analysis of a 32-item pool based on responses from 438 subjects confirmed three distinct factors which were labelled: agoraphobia, social phobia, and interoceptive fears. Evidence was obtained to support the internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of all three factors. Importantly, the interoceptive factor demonstrated a slightly different pattern of relationships with other constructs to the agoraphobic factor, even though the two were highly related. The present questionnaire will help to expand current assessments of panic disorder for both clinical work and research.

Adolescent↗