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PubMed2004

Relationship of speed of slaughter on infected premises and intensity of culling of other premises to the rate of spread of the foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in Great Britain, 2001.

During the foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in the UK in 2001, two major control policies were the rapid identification of cases and the culling of animals on infected premises and on dangerous contact premises. Dangerous contact premises were divided into two groups, premises contiguous to an infected premises and non-contiguous premises. In England, the largest numbers of geographically clustered infected premises were in Cumbria, the South West (Somerset, Devon and Cornwall) and the Settle/Clitheroe area straddling the Yorkshire-Lancashire border. In each of these clusters, the rate of spread of the disease, the average time from the first lesion to slaughter on infected premises, and the intensity of culling of contiguous premises and non-contiguous premises were calculated for seven-day periods. Linear regression analysis was used to look for relationships between these factors and the rate of spread of the disease. The average time from the first lesion to slaughter had a statistically significant relationship in two of the three clusters and the intensity of culling of non-contiguous premises had a significant relationship in one. The intensity of culling of contiguous premises had no significant relationship in any of the three clusters.

Abattoirs↗

PubMed1969

Inhibition of host cell ribosomal ribonucleic acid methylation by foot-and-mouth disease virus.

A study of protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA) synthesis in cells infected by foot-and-mouth disease virus has indicated possible mechanisms of viral control over host cell metabolism. Foot-and-mouth disease virus infection of baby hamster kidney cells resulted in 50% inhibition of host cell protein synthesis at 180 min postinfection. A viral-induced interference with host cell RNA methylation was observed to be more rapidly inhibited than protein synthesis. To determine the nature of methylation inhibition, the kinetics of several host cell methylated RNA species were examined subsequent to virus infection. Data from sucrose zonal centrifugation and methylated albumin kieselguhr chromatography showed that methylation of nuclear RNA was inhibited 50% at 60 min postinfection. Inhibition of nuclear ribosomal RNA precursors and formation of nascent ribosomes correlated with inhibition kinetics of nuclear RNA methylation. It is suggested that the viral interference with the host nuclear RNA methylation is directly responsible for the observed loss of nascent ribosome formation. Moreover, early in the infectious cycle, methylation inhibition of host cell RNA could, in part, account for the cessation of host protein synthesis.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Control of foot-and-mouth disease through vaccination and the isolation of infected animals.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) within Saudi Arabian dairy herds has been controlled for the past decade through vaccination. Data from 19 outbreaks on Saudi farms has suggested that the durability of these vaccines extended for 2.5 months, providing an 81-98% level of protection. Vaccination has nevertheless failed to prevent the establishment and sometimes persistence of the disease. This is probably because the highly contagious nature of FMD creates increasing levels of viral excretion during an outbreak, and the co-habitation in Saudi farms of affected/susceptible animals following diagnosis, predisposes the herds to re-infection. Pre-clinical excretion of the virus leads to the infection of additional in-contact susceptible animals prior to diagnosis, so the isolation of clinically infected animals does not guarantee a removal of infection. Saudi Arabian farms are subdivided into managed farm pens and isolation (away from the farm) of all animals in infected pens not only removes the infectious individuals showing clinical signs, but also those that are sub-clinical and excreting virus. Simulations suggest that removing all infectious animals from the herd significantly reduces the per cent infected in the herd.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

Rapid selection of genetic and antigenic variants of foot-and-mouth disease virus during persistence in cattle.

Rapid evolution of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) is documented during persistent infections of cattle. The carrier state was established experimentally with plaque-purified FMDV of serotype C3. Virus was recovered from the esophageal pharyngeal area of the animals up to 539 days postinfection. Analysis of capsid proteins by electrofocusing and by electrophoretic mobility of the genomic poly(C)-rich tract suggested heterogeneity in several isolates and sequential dominance of viral subpopulations. Nucleotide sequences of the VP1-coding region of the parental FMDV C3 clones and of seven isolates from the carrier cattle showed point mutations that represented rates of fixation of mutations of 0.9 X 10(-2) to 7.4 X 10(-2) substitutions per nucleotide per year; 59% of the base changes led to amino acid substitutions, some of which were located within residues 135 to 151, a region involved in neutralization of FMDV. In the esophageal pharyngeal fluid samples, FMDV C3-neutralizing activity was present. Antigenic variation was demonstrated with monoclonal antibodies raised against FMDV C3. Two isolates from carrier cattle differed from the parental virus by 10(2)- or 10(3)-fold decreased reactivity with neutralizing monoclonal antibodies. We suggest that persistent, inapparent infections of ruminants, in addition to being a reservoir of virus, may promote the rapid selection of antigenically variant FMDVs.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1986

Potential for the transmission of foot-and-mouth disease virus from African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) to cattle.

Foot-and-mouth disease viruses of types SAT 1 and SAT 2 isolated from diseased cattle and carrier buffalo, either on the same farm or in the same ecological area within a short time of each other, were compared by T1 oligonucleotide mapping. No similarity was observed between the maps obtained, indicating that the different populations of virus were unique to each species and that no interspecies transmission had occurred.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

On-farm eradication of foot-and-mouth disease as an alternative to mass culling.

A control and eradication programme for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was initiated on a 1500-sow farm in Asia as an alternative to mass culling. The programme was based on mass vaccination and exposure to FMD virus to ensure the development of effective immunity throughout the population. Pigs are not long-term carriers of FMD virus and it should be eliminated by 21 days after infection. Entry of breeding stock was temporarily halted and the sow herd was partially depopulated in order to create a buffer between the infected and uninfected animals. After exposure to the virus and partial depopulation, the virus was eliminated through unidirectional pig flow and strict all-in/all-out procedures, and by thorough cleaning and disinfection of the buildings. Twelve months after the initial outbreak, the eradication plan was completed and successful. In parallel with the eradication programme, a small-scale isolated weaning project was carried out with the sow population that was moved out of the affected farm; 708 piglets were weaned to a separate facility 300 m away. No clinical signs of FMD were observed and the piglets remained serologically negative.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Foot-and-mouth disease control using vaccination: South African experience.

South Africa has zoned status from the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) with the largest part of the country being foot-and-mouth disease (FMD)-free without vaccination. Outbreaks in this zone are handled differently from outbreaks in the control zones, which do not affect the export status of the country. However, the different socio-economic groupings need to be considered when reaching control decisions and in this regard, the country has been challenged with unique foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) control options. Vaccination has been shown to be effective both in ensuring that disease does not spread from the endemic to the free zone, as well as controlling outbreaks in the free zone. New adjuvants that claim to illicit longer lasting immunity have been tested with antigens derived from the SAT serotypes and animals were challenged one year post vaccination to determine the level of protection. However, even with vaccines that provide immunity for more than a year, an annual vaccination campaign will most probably not be acceptable in the buffer zone where calving occurs throughout the year.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Emergence of a novel subgroup within the widely circulating lineage of foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype Asia 1 in India.

The complete VP1 encoding (1D) gene of 54 foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus serotype Asia1 field isolates, most of which were isolated during 2000 and 2001, was sequenced. The phylogenetic analysis identified a novel subgroup (>10% nucleotide divergence) within the widely circulating lineage of this serotype. The newly emerged viruses were responsible for disease outbreaks in both cattle and buffaloes and were present in six different states in the country. Amino acid sequence comparison of these isolates revealed significant sequence divergence at many of the amino acid positions in comparison to those of lineage VI-A and C. Emergence of such viruses may affect the efficacy of vaccine strain currently used for protection against FMD in India.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2004

Comparison and analysis of the complete nucleotide sequence of foot-and-mouth disease viruses from animals in Korea and other PanAsia strains.

During the last 3 years, foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype O, named PanAsia, caused two outbreaks in the Republic of Korea. To determine if there was an obvious genetic relationship between the virus isolated in 2002 (O/SKR/2002) and the O/SKR/2000, and to further analyze the epidemiological relationships between the PanAsia viruses and the viruses identified in Korea, the complete nucleotide sequence of the O/SKR/2002 and the O/SKR/2000 were determined by automatic cycling sequencing and primer walking. The nucleotides and the deduced amino acid (aa) sequences of the strains identified in Korea were compared with each other and also those enrolled in the GenBank database. In comparison and analysis of the viruses identified in Korea, any deletions or insertions in the specific fragment gene of both the O/SKR/2002 and O/SKR/2000 were not identified. However, comparison of the aa sequence of the identified virus in 2002 from pigs with those of other PanAsia strains revealed significant substitutions of 4 aa in the VPI region and 8 aa in the 3A region. In phylogenetic analysis based on the translated region, the identified virus in 2002 appeared to be the divergence of approximately 1% degree with other PanAsia viruses. Also, animal experiments indicated that O/SKR/2000 is not host-restricted and develop the clinical signs in the main susceptible livestock species (cattle and pigs). However, O/SKR/2002 did not develop the clinical signs in cattle and showed severe clinical signs only in pigs. These analytic data suggest that 2002 outbreaks in Korea is not re-occurred but re-introduced from nowhere.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2003

Description of an epidemic simulation model for use in evaluating strategies to control an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a spatial epidemic model to simulate intraherd and interherd transmission of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus. SAMPLE POPULATION: 2,238 herds, representing beef, dairy, swine, goats, and sheep, and 5 sale yards located in Fresno, Kings, and Tulare counties of California. PROCEDURE: Using Monte-Carlo simulations, a spatial stochastic epidemic simulation model was developed to identify new herds that would acquire FMD following random selection of an index herd and to assess progression of an epidemic after implementation of mandatory control strategies. RESULTS: The model included species-specific transition periods for FMD infection, locations of herds, rates of direct and indirect contacts among herds, and probability distributions derived from expert opinions on probabilities of transmission by direct and indirect contact, as well as reduction in contact following implementation of restrictions on movements in designated infected areas and surveillance zones. Models of supplemental control programs included slaughter of all animals within a specified distance of infected herds, slaughter of only high-risk animals identified by use of a model simulation, and vaccination of all animals within a 5- to 50-km radius of infected herds. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The FMD model represents a tool for use in planning biosecurity and emergency-response programs and in comparing potential benefits of various strategies for control and eradication of FMD appropriate for specific populations.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Application of subjective methods to the determination of the likelihood and consequences of the entry of foot-and-mouth disease into New Zealand.

New Zealand has a history of continuous freedom from foot-and-mouth disease and relies on a two-tier system of surveillance to maintain this status. The first involves border control procedures and stringent importation standards, and the second is an exotic disease and pest response programme. As part of an economic evaluation comparing the exotic disease and pest response programme against a hypothetical lower grade ;measured response programme subjective judgements of the risks involved were required. Twenty-eight selected animal health professionals, predominantly veterinarians, were posted a questionnaire that used three techniques (single point estimates, three point estimates and elicitation methods) to determine the risk components in a foot-and-mouth disease outbreak. The two key variables were the probability of an outbreak in New Zealand, and the number of secondary properties to which the disease spread during the epidemic. A Delphi conference of ten selected participants then focused mainly on the two key variables, with a second round postal extension to this group for the first variable. The individual data sets were then analysed and combined using a stochastic simulation technique. The final mean probability of an outbreak was about once in 50 years (0.0199). The mean numbers of farms to which disease would spread during an epidemic under the existing exotic disease and pest response programme, a measured response programme which allowed vaccination and a measured response programme which excluded vaccination were estimated to be 61, 478 and 2230 respectively. The policy implications arising from the quantification of these two key variables are that more expenditure on preparedness is justifiable and current resource planning is barely adequate.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1991

[Protection from foot-and-mouth disease virus in naturally-susceptible animals by a linear polymer of a synthetic peptide].

Linear polymer of a peptide corresponding to the fragment 142-155 of the foot-and-mouth disease virus A22(550) protein (VP1) was synthesized. Whereas the monomeric peptide was only slightly immunogenic, the polymer induced virus-neutralizing antibodies in rabbits and protected 100% guinea pigs. Sheep vaccinated once and cattle vaccinated twice were stable against infection with the homologous virulent foot-and-mouth disease virus.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1971

Growth of the IB-RS-2 pig kidney cell line in suspension culture and its susceptibility to foot-and-mouth disease virus.

The adaptation of the pig kidney cell line IB-RS-2, clone 60, to growth in suspension culture is described. When fully adapted, an approximate threefold increase in viable cells was obtained within 72 hr from initial cell concentrations of 5 x 10(5) per ml in culture volumes up to 1,500 ml. The monolayer cells (99th passage level) used to initiate the suspension cultures and the fully adapted suspension cells were shown to have an aneuploid chromosome karyotype, whereas earlier monolayer cultures (32nd passage level) had a pseudodiploid karyotype. Replicate virus titrations in monolayers prepared from suspension-adapted cells, IB-RS-2 monolayer cells, BHK monolayer cells, and in suckling mice showed that the suspension cells had retained sensitivity to foot-and-mouth disease virus. The geometric mean peak infectivity of seven strains of foot-and-mouth disease virus grown in IB-RS-2 suspension cells was 10(8.2) plaque-forming units per ml, with a mean complement-fixing activity of approximately 135 complement-fixing units per ml. These preliminary results indicate that submerged cultures of these cells on an industrial scale may be useful for commercial foot-and-mouth disease vaccine production.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

The survival of foot-and-mouth disease virus in raw and pasteurized milk and milk products.

The Foot-and-Mouth Disease virus (FMDV) is not a public health threat, but it is highly contagious to cloven-footed animals. The virus is shed into milk up to 33 h before there are apparent signs of the disease in dairy cows, and, in extreme cases, signs of disease may not appear for up to 14 d. During this time, raw milk can serve as a vector for spread of the disease both at the farm and during transport to the processing plant by milk tanker. Raw milk and milk products fed to animals have the potential to cause infection, but the potential for pasteurized milk products to cause infection is largely unknown. Current minimum pasteurization standards may not be adequate to eliminate FMDV in milk completely. The purpose of this paper is to assess the literature on the thermal resistance of FMDV in milk and milk products, to identify the risks associated with ingestion of pasteurized products by animals, and to lay a strategy to prevent the spread of FMDV from contaminated milk.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Serological probes for some foot-and-mouth disease virus nonstructural proteins.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) O1 Kaufbeuren-specific cDNA fragments were subcloned into the E. coli expression vector pRIT.2T. Fusion proteins thus produced in bacteria were purified by affinity chromatography and inoculated into rabbits. Three sera thus obtained were found to be monospecific for FMDV proteins 3A, 3C, and 3D, respectively. Two others were prevalently directed against protein 2C, but in addition, either to protein 2B or to protein 3A. Five out of six mature nonstructural virus proteins can therefore be separately investigated in FMDV-infected cells, either by indirect immunofluorescence or by radioimmunoprecipitation. Immunofluorescence shows all investigated proteins to be located exclusively in the cytoplasm. One of them, protein 2C, transiently forms aggregates at the periphery of cells. Radioimmunoprecipitation confirmed current knowledge on maturation of FMDV proteins. It was further used to characterize postinfectional sera with regard to FMDV-specific antibodies. Cattle and guinea pig were found to have responded differently to FMDV nonstructural antigens. Furthermore, antigenicity of yet to be described FMDV polypeptides was observed in the guinea pig.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Serial passage in tissue culture of mixed foot-and-mouth disease virus serotypes.

The foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus field specimen SAU/8/88 was previously shown to consist of a mixture of O and Asia 1 serotypes [15]. In this study, plaques representing the O and Asia 1 components isolated from the original epithelial virus suspension were used to construct mixtures of known ratios, and these were serially passaged in tissue culture. After each passage, the ratio of O to Asia 1 virus was calculated. The two virus populations were shown to be cycling through time. This cycling phenomenon has not been described before for FMD virus in tissue culture, but is consistent with current population theory.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Function of minor polypeptides in foot-and-mouth disease virus and poliovirus.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus and poliovirus each contain several minor polypeptides, in addition to the four structural proteins. One of these, the viral RNA polymerase, can also act as a nuclease, hydrolysing the RNA and thus destroying viral infectivity. It is tightly bound to the RNA and may be the packaging signal for assembly of the particle.

Aphthovirus↗

PubMed1983

Identification of amino acid and nucleotide sequence of the foot-and-mouth disease virus RNA polymerase.

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) RNA polymerase was purified from the polyethylene glycol (PEG)-treated supernatant of infected cell media by a combination of ion-exchange chromatography, membrane molecular filtration, and affinity chromatography. The purified RNA polymerase which migrated as a single band of 56,000 molecular weight on a polyacrylamide gel was subjected to automated Edman degradation and the sequence of the first 30 amino acid residues established. On the basis of previous evidence, which indicated that the RNA polymerase was the most 3'-translated polypeptide, plasmids containing cDNA mapping at the 3' end of the genome were characterized by restriction enzyme analysis and nucleotide sequencing. These investigations definitively established the derived amino acid sequence by confirmation of 28 of the amino terminal residues determined by amino acid sequence analysis; the location of the FMDV RNA polymerase coding region at the extreme 3' end of the genome, 96 nucleotides from the poly(A) tail; and the N-terminal cleavage point of the RNA polymerase from its precursor P100 was found to be a glutamic acid-glycine bond.

Amino Acid Sequence↗