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PubMed1989

Prerequisites in distance running performance of female runners.

We investigated which attribute or what combination of attributes would best account for distance running performance of female runners. The subjects were 30 well-trained female distance runners, aged 19 to 23 years. Anthropometric and body composition characteristics, pulmonary function characteristics, blood properties, and cardiorespiratory function characteristics were measured at rest or during submaximal and maximal exercise. Analyses of the data showed that the relationship of oxygen uptake corresponding to lactate threshold (VO2T, ml.kg-1.min-1) with each distance running performance was substantially higher as compared with the relationship of other independent variables including maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Furthermore, multiple regression analysis indicated that running performances in 3,000m, 5,000m, and 10,000m are best accounted for by a combination of VO2/LT (X1), fat-free weight (X2), and/or mean corpuscular volume (X3). A multiple regression equation for predicting the 5,000m (Y, s) running performance was formulated as Y = -14.75X1-3. 03X2-5.79X3 + 2282.1. We suggest that VO2max would not stand alone as a decisive factor of distance running success in female runners, and that the distance running performance could be better accounted for by a combination of several attributes relating to lactate threshold, body composition, and/or hematological status. The linear regression of the predicted running performance on the actually measured running performance can be accepted in the range of 986-1197s.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Assessment of long-distance running performance in elite male runners using onset of blood lactate accumulation.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and long-distance running performance in order to examine whether OBLA can be a good predictor of long-distance running performance even in elite male runners with similar performance levels. Eleven highly-trained male long-distance runners participated in this study. The average running velocities of the individuals' running performance were 5.918 +/- 0.084 m.s-1 and 5.672 +/- 0.095 m.s-1 for 5000 m (V5000) and 10,000 m (V10000), respectively. The blood lactate concentrations and heart rate responses were measured immediately after field running, and the average value of running velocity corresponding to OBLA (VOBLA) was 5.447 +/- 0.132 m.s-1. Variations of these three velocities expressed as a coefficient of variance (CV) ranged from 1.4 to 2.4%. A strong inverse relationship between heart rate corresponding to OBLA (HROBLA) and performance was observed (r = -0.709, p < 0.02 for V5000 and r = -0.830, p < 0.01 for V10000), while there was a lack of significant relationship between VOBLA and performance (r = 0.293, NS for V5000 and r = 0.130, NS for V10000). Furthermore, the average value of HROBLA obtained in this study (174.5 +/- 8.2 b.min-1) was quite similar to that of the heart rate threshold reported by some previous researchers. In conclusion, VOBLA alone could not explain the small variation of long-distance running performance, and HROBLA should be used in place of VOBLA for evaluating long-distance running performance in elite runners with quite similar performance levels.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Energetics of middle-distance running performances in male and female junior using track measurements.

The aim of this study was to determine the energetic factors of middle-distance running performance in junior elite runners according to gender and by using measurements from on-track performances. Fifteen elite runners (8 males and 7 females) were investigated by means of an incremental test and an all-out run over 600 m performed with a 2-d interval. We calculated (1) the aerobic maximal power (E(r max aero), in W kg(-1)), including VO(2 max) and the delay of attainment of VO(2 max) in the 600 m run; (2) the anaerobic power (E(r max anaero)), i.e., the oxygen deficit (J kg(-1)) divided by the duration of the 600 m run. Despite the difference in race duration (87 +/- 3 vs. 102 +/- 2 s), the 600 m run was made at the same relative value of the velocity associated with VO(2 max) (VVO(2 )max) in males and females (121.6 +/- 7 vs. 120 +/- 8% VO(2 max), p = 0.7). E(r max aero) explained most of the variance in the performance (the personal best performed 8 weeks later) between genders: 65 and 79% over 800 m (T(800)) and 1,500 m (T(1,500)). For females, E(r max aero) explained most of the variance of T(1,500) (r(2) = 0.66), and E(r max anaero) improved this prediction (r(2) = 0.84). No energetic factor predicted the performance on 800 m run in males. In elite junior athletes, the energetic model with individual data measured over an all-out 600 m performed on a track, provides an explanation for most of the variance in middle-distance running performances between genders. The distinction between aerobic power and anaerobic power allowed an improvement in the prediction of middle-distance running performances.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1982

Effect of exercise (running) on serum glucose, insulin, glucagon, and chromium excretion.

Chromium is involved in normal glucose metabolism. To test whether chromium is also associated with the exercise-induced increases in glucose utilization, urinary chromium excretion, serum glucose, insulin, and glucagon of nine male runners (23-46 yr) were evaluated. Blood samples were taken prior to, immediately following, and 2 h after a strenuous 6-mile run. Urine samples were also taken at these times, and total daily urine collections were made the day of the run and the following day. Mean serum glucose for all runners immediately after running was 185 +/- 19 mg/dl compared with 90 +/- 1 mg/dl (mean +/- SE) prior to running. Mean serum glucagon immediately after running was significantly elevated compared with that observed prior to or 2 h after running; serum insulin levels were not altered significantly. Mean urinary chromium concentration was increased nearly five-fold 2 h after running; similar results were obtained when chromium concentration was expressed per mg of creatinine. Total daily urinary Cr excretion was approximately two times higher the day of running compared with the following nonrun day. Daily urinary excretion of sodium, potassium, and calcium were measured to determine if exercise had a general nonspecific effect on renal function; daily urinary excretion of these was not changed by exercise. These data demonstrate that accompanying the exercise-induced changes associated with increased glucose utilization, there is a significant increase in chromium excretion.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Blood lactate recovery and perceived readiness to start a new run in middle-distance runners during interval training.

The aim of this study was to establish to what extent ratings of perceived readiness to start a new run are dependent on recovery of blood lactate and heart rate during passive recovery between interval runs (4 x 2000 m) of increasing intensity by 15 male college-level middle-distance runners. The Perceived Readiness Rating scale was administered at each minute of recovery. Blood lactate concentration was measured immediately after runs at Min. 3 of recovery after the first and second runs, and, in addition, at Min. 6 of recovery after the third and fourth runs. Heart rate was recorded continuously during the runs and during recovery. The obtained correlation between blood lactate recovery and perceived readiness ratings after the third and fourth runs were -.36 and -.56, respectively (p<.05). Consequently, blood lactate concentration recovery appears to influence the middle-distance runners' perceived readiness estimation to begin a new run. The Perceived Readiness Rating applied by us appears useful in the training of middle-distance runners.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Effects of a prolonged run on simple reaction time of well trained runners.

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of increased arousal induced by a prolonged exercise at ventilatory threshold simple reaction time performance performed during a running task. 11 well trained triathletes completed two testing sessions within a 2-wk. period. The first session was a protocol of VO2 max determination conducted on a treadmill. This protocol was used to assess the velocity associated with ventilatory threshold (vVvt). The second session was a 90-min. running test performed at vVvt. This last session was composed of five submaximal treadmill runs (10-min. long, 0% grade) separated by four overground runs (10-min.). Before, during each treadmill run, and after exercise, subjects performed three blocks of 20 simple reaction time. Furthermore, at the end of each overground run, perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded. Analysis showed a significant impairment in Simple RT performance during the first treadmill run only. After this first run a significant effect of exercise duration on Simple RT was observed. After 40-min. of exercise a significant improvement in reaction time during exercise was recorded, Furthermore, when Simple RT was recorded at rest, there was no difference pre-exercise and postexercise. These results suggest that a simple cognitive performance could be improved during exercise, despite the negative effect of the dual task. This improvement in reaction time could be explained mainly by an increase in arousal induced by a prolonged exercise.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Deception and perceived exertion during high-intensity running bouts.

This investigation examined the overall and localized perceived exertion responses to repeated bouts of submaximal, high-intensity running when subjects were deceived. Well-trained male and female n = 40) runners were randomly assigned to four groups who completed three 1680-m bouts of running at 80-86% peak treadmill running speed. The two experimental groups, Expected Similar and Expected Increase, were deceived of the actual run intensities while the two control groups, Control Increase and Control Similar, were informed of the actual protocol. After each run, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were taken for the whole body, chest, legs, head, and other areas. No significant differences were found in overall RPE between deceived and control groups. However, there was a tendency for the Expected Increase group, deceived into believing the intensity would be higher than they were subsequently made to run, to experience an attenuated increase in RPE between runs compared to the control group (Control Increase) who were honestly informed. For all groups, legs and chest were given consistently higher localized exertion scores than the head and other areas. It appears that a precise system of afferent feedback mediates the overall perceived exertion response during high-intensity running, and psychological intervention that alters pre-exercise expectations has minimal feedforward effect on exertion ratings taken postexercise.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Shin splints and forefoot contact running: a case report.

Many athletes develop shin splints after athletic activity. The purpose of this case report is to describe the treatment of a patient with posteromedial tibial pain (shin splints) who habitually ran with a forefoot contact running style. The 20-year-old male patient, who played volleyball and basketball about 7 hours a week, complained of pain in the middle one-third of the posteromedial tibia after an acute but prolonged episode of running. Routine observational analysis and in-shoe pressure analysis of the patient's running style showed that he habitually ran on his toes with an absence of heelstrike (forefoot contact running). After instructing the patient on heel-toe running, he no longer complained of posteromedial tibial bone pain. Several possible reasons are proposed for the reduction of leg pain following cessation of forefoot contact running. This case report proposes forefoot contact running as a possible contributor to posteromedial shin splints and that a change in running style may be the optimal treatment for some patients.

Adult↗

PubMed1980

Plasma cortisol, androstenedione, testosterone and luteinizing hormone in running exercise of different intensities.

Changes in plasma cortisol, androstenedione, testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) were measured in five young male sprinters after maximal short-term running and in five young male long-distance runners after moderate (90 min, 4.3 min/km) and intense (45 min, 3.3 min/km) long-term running. Short-term running increased mean plasma cortisol (27%) and androstenedione (19%) significantly; no appreciable changes were found in mean plasma testosterone or LH levels. Intense long-term running caused considerable increases in mean plasma cortisol (43%) and androstenedione (53%). Immediately after the long-term runs mean plasma testosterone and LH did not show nay significant changes, but half an hour later mean plasma LH was found to have dropped significantly below the preceding level, by 42% after the moderate run and by 45% after the intense run. At this time the intense long-term run caused a significant decrease in mean plasma testosterone, which remained depressed up to 3 h after the end of the exercise. This study implies that the changes in plasma hormone levels depend more on the intensity of the exercise than on its duration. The activity of the pituitary-adrenocortical system appears to be a good indicator of the effort expended during the exercise. In the pituitary-testicular system, in contrast, the effort expended may be more accurately reflected by changes during the recovery period.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

The backpack run test: a model for a fair and occupationally relevant military fitness test.

Our purpose in this investigation was to develop and validate a theoretical model for a backpack run test based on how fast one can run 2 miles while wearing a backpack. Using actual unloaded (no backpack) 2-mile-run test data from 59 male service academy cadets, we calculated the average oxygen cost during the run, the equivalent cost if wearing additional weight, and the corresponding estimated run time with the backpack. The correlations between body weight and loaded (backpack weight = 30 kg) run times (r = 0.55 [p < 0.05] and r = 0.12 [p > 0.05], respectively) demonstrate that the bias against heavier runners is eliminated with the backpack run. Given that the backpack run test requires only standard-issue equipment, demonstrates clear occupational and health-related fitness relevance, predicts no apparent body-size bias, and measures work- and health-related components of fitness, we recommend that the military services consider the present data when developing or modifying tests of physical fitness.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

The effect of multi-cycle-run blocks on pulmonary function in triathletes.

BACKGROUND: This study was designed to determined the pulmonary responses elicited by multi-cycle-run exercise in triathletes and to compare them to those elicited during a simple cycle-run succession. METHODS: Twelve male triathletes underwent three successive laboratory trials: 1) an incremental cycle test, 2) 30 min of cycling followed by 20 min of running (C-R), and 3) five repeated bouts of 6 min of cycling and 4 min of running (X-CR). Before and 10 minutes after the third and fourth trials, the triathletes underwent lung function testing, especially spirometry and diffusing capacity testing for carbon monoxide (DL(CO)). During all trials, ventilatory data were collected every minute using an automated breath-by-breath system. RESULTS: The results showed that: 1) the cardiorespiratory responses observed during running were greater in the X-CR trial for VE/VCO2 and HR, 2) DL(CO) and DL(CO)/VA were significantly reduced after both trials, and 3) there were no significant changes in pulmonary volumes. CONCLUSIONS: We concluded that 1) the multi-block trial elicited greater cardioventilatory responses than simple the cycle-run succession and 2) multi-block seems a good method to stimulate the specific adaptations required for the cycle-run succession, and particularly for the cycle-run transition. In any case, the efficacy of the multi-block model needs to be more thoroughly evaluated over the course of a longer-term training programme.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Carbohydrate-electrolyte replacement improves distance running performance in the heat.

The effects of a 7% carbohydrate-electrolyte drink (CE) and an artificially sweetened placebo (P) on performance and physiological function were compared during a 40-km run in the heat. Eight highly trained male runners completed two runs on a measured outdoor course. The first 35 km of each run was performed at self-selected training pace and the last 5 km at race effort. Under a counterbalanced, double-blind design, subjects consumed 400 ml of either CE or P 30 min prior to exercise, and 250 ml every 5 km thereafter during the run. Rectal temperature, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, sweat rate, and respiratory exchange ratio were similar during the run for CE and P. Serum Na+, K+, Cl-, total protein, osmolality, blood lactate, urea nitrogen, and % change in plasma volume were also similar for both drink conditions; however, blood glucose was significantly higher (P less than 0.01) with CE. Running performance in the last 5 km was significantly faster (P less than 0.03) during CE (21.9 min) compared with P (24.4 min). Subjects reported no differences in stomach upset, bloating, or nausea between P and CE. Results indicate that CE replacement elicits similar thermoregulatory and physiological responses during prolonged running in the heat but increases run performance and blood glucose when compared with P.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Effects of successive running and cycling on the release of atrial natriuretic factor in highly trained triathletes.

AIM: To evaluate the influence of successive running and cycling on both exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia (EIAH) and atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) release, 5 triathletes performed 2 separate exercise trials. METHODS: One trial consisted of a 20-min+20-min successive cycle-run exercise (C(1)-R(2)) and the other consisted of a 20-min+20-min successive run-cycle exercise (R(1)-C(2)). Arterial oxygenation (PaO(2)) and ANF were determined at pre-exercise, at the end of each 20-min segment of exercise and after 10 min of recovery. RESULTS: EIAH was noted during C(1)-R(2) and R(1)-C(2) trials. A higher EIAH was observed during running compared with cycling performed in the 1(st) position (R(1) vs C(1)) in the succession. In contrast, no difference was observed between successive running and successive cycling (R(2) vs C(2)), (-10.6+/-7.0 vs -15.6+/-4.0 mmHg for C(1)-R(2) and -20.9+/-6.0 vs -16.2+/-2.4 mmHg for R(1)-C(2)). ANF showed no difference between cycling and running performed in first position, whereas a significantly lower ANF was observed during successive cycling compared with successive running (C(2) vs R(2)) (19.9+/-3.72 vs 36.2+/-6.4 pmol.L(-1)). During recovery, neither PaO(2) nor ANF plasma returned to baseline level after either trial. CONCLUSION: This study provides new information on some of the physiological modifications that occur during multi-sports. Specifically, the impact of the modality of the successive exercise on ANF release and body fluid regulation was observed. Cycling as the successive exercise seems to cause lower ANF release than does running.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2005

Flexibility and running economy in female collegiate track athletes.

AIM: Limited information exists regarding the association between flexibility and running economy in female athletes. This study examined relationships between lower limb and trunk flexibility and running economy in 17 female collegiate track athletes (20.12+/-1.80 y). METHODS: Correlational design, subjects completed 4 testing sessions over a 2-week period. The 1st session assessed maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max=55.39+/-6.96 ml.kg-1.min-1). The 2nd session assessed trunk and lower limb flexibility. Two sets of 6 trunk and lower limb flexibility measures were performed after a 10-min treadmill warm-up at 2.68 m.s-1. The 3rd session consisted of 3 10-min accommodation runs at a speed of 2.68 m.s-1 which was approximately 60% VO2max. Each accommodation bout was separated by a 10-min rest. The 4th session assessed running economy. Subjects completed a 5-min warm-up at 2.68 m.s-1 followed by 10-min economy run at 2.68 m.s-1. RESULTS: Pearson product moment correlations revealed no significant correlations between running economy and flexibility measures. CONCLUSION: Results are in contrast to studies demonstrating an inverse relationship between trunk and/or lower limb flexibility and running economy in males. Furthermore, results are in contrast to studies reporting positive relationships between flexibility and running economy.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Maximal metabolic responses of deep and shallow water running in trained runners.

The purpose of this study was to compare the maximal metabolic responses of competitive runners during treadmill running (TMR), deep water running (DWR), and shallow water running (SWR). Seven male and two female members of the Wheaton College varsity cross country team served as subjects. Maximal measures included oxygen consumption (VO2max), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), heart rate (HRmax), and lactic acid (HLA). Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed treadmill running to elicit higher VO2max and HRmax than both water tests (P less than 0.05). VO2max was also greater for SWR than for DWR (P less than 0.05). VO2max values for SWR and DWR were 90.3% and 73.5% of TMR, respectively. HRmax for SWR and DWR were 88.6% and 86% of TMR, respectively. RER and HLA did not differ among tests. These data suggest that shallow water running is capable of eliciting metabolic responses comparable to treadmill running. Shallow water running elicits higher metabolic responses than deep water running.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Effects of phosphate loading on oxygen uptake, ventilatory anaerobic threshold, and run performance.

Seven male competitive runners (VO2max 73.9 +/- 6.3 ml.kg-1.min-1) participated in a two-session, placebo, double-blind study to determine the effects of phosphate loading on oxygen uptake, ventilatory anaerobic threshold, and 5-mile run performance. Subjects ingested 1000 mg of tribasic sodium phosphate or a placebo four times daily for 6 d. A maximal running stress test or a 5-mile performance run was performed randomly on either the 3rd or the 6th d. Test sessions were separated by a 2-wk washout period and repeated with alternating phosphate and placebo regimens. Venous blood samples were collected prior to and following each max and run session. Results revealed that placebo resting serum phosphate levels were mildly elevated and that phosphate loading significantly increased resting and post-exercise serum phosphate values. Resting and post-exercise 2,3-diphosphoglycerate values were decreased while hemoglobin values were elevated with phosphate ingestion. Phosphate loading significantly increased maximal oxygen uptake from 4.77 +/- 0.29 to 5.18 +/- 0.25 l.min-1 and ventilatory anaerobic threshold from 3.74 +/- 0.28 to 4.18 +/- 0.14 l.min-1. Five-mile run times were nonsignificantly different between placebo and phosphate sessions. However, mean performance run oxygen uptake was significantly lower (3.87 +/- 0.3 to 3.80 +/- 0.3 l.min-1) with phosphate ingestion. Data demonstrate that maximal and run performance were influenced by elevations in serum phosphate eliciting an increased maximal oxygen uptake, ventilatory anaerobic threshold, and variable effects on 5-mile run performance. These adaptations occurred without observable increases in red cell 2,3-diphosphoglycerate.

Anaerobic Threshold↗

PubMed1989

[Sudden death during mass running events in Switzerland 1978-1987: an epidemiologico-pathologic study].

Between 1984 and 1987 there were 7 cases of sudden cardiac death during organized mass runs in Switzerland, and between 1978 and 1987 there were 3 cases during the nine largest mass running events (total 8 cases of sudden death during the race). Based on numbers of participants in all events 1984-1987, or in the nine largest events 1978-1987, an incidence of 1 sudden death per 129,500 hrs. of running (95% confidence interval 1/62,500-1/263,000 hrs.), or 1 sudden death per 117,000 hrs. of running (1/45,000-1/311,000 hrs.) respectively, was estimated. This estimate is higher than the rate of 1 sudden death per 396,000 hrs. of noncompetitive jogging found in a study from the United States (Thompson et al.: J. Amer. med. Ass. 1982; 247: 2535-2538). The Swiss incidence of sudden cardiac death during organized mass runs was 50 to 1000 times higher than the incidence expected by chance alone (as estimated from national death register data). All 8 cases of the study were men, the younger four aged 23 yrs. on average (range 20-31 yrs.), the older four aged 49 yrs. (46-53 yrs.). Autopsy in three of the younger men identified hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in one instance whereas in the two other cases no plausible cause of death could be found. The two autopsies performed in older men both showed severe coronary heart disease. Only in 1 case out of the 8 were possible prodromal symptoms of the subsequent death, such as fatigue and nausea, observed, and the average prevalence of known cardiovascular risk factors was low. None of the 8 runners dying suddenly was completely untrained, but 6 out of 8 had only modest running experience, i.e. a low number of years of running. This study confirms that there is probably a clearly increased risk of sudden death during running events with a competitive character, but this acute elevation of risk should probably not be overstated in view of both its very low population - attributable risk and the important potential of regular exercise for overall coronary risk reduction and health promotion.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

An explanation of the upward drift in oxygen uptake during prolonged sub-maximal downhill running.

The upward drift in oxygen uptake (UDO) that occurs during some prolonged sub-maximal exercises involving eccentric muscle action has received only scant attention in the literature. Those papers reporting UDO have generally used bicycling on an ergometer modified for eccentric exercise as the experimental activity. The purpose of this study was to quantify and propose an explanation for UDO during a different activity involving eccentric muscle action--downhill running. Oxygen consumption, quadriceps muscle electromyography, and stride length were collected from 10 experienced male runners (mean maximal oxygen consumption = 65.0 +/- 5.2 ml X kg X min-1) during two 40-min sub-maximal runs at 3.83 m X s-1. The first run was on a level grade and required 66% of the subjects' mean maximal oxygen consumption. The second run, completed 2 d later, was performed on a 10% downhill grade and elicited 44% of the mean maximal oxygen consumption. Results of the level run showed non-significant changes in oxygen consumption, rectified integrated electromyography, and stride length between minutes 10 and 40. Significant (P less than 0.05) increases in oxygen consumption (10%) and integrated electromyography (23%) were found across the same time period of the downhill run. No significant changes in downhill stride length were observed. Delayed-onset muscle soreness, a presumed indication of muscle damage, occurred only following the downhill run. It is hypothesized that UDO and increasing integrated electromyography during downhill running reflected increased motor unit recruitment within the eccentrically acting muscles caused by an ongoing combination of muscle damage, connective tissue damage, and local muscle fatigue.

Adult↗