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PubMed2003

Limits to sustained energy intake. VI. Energetics of lactation in laboratory mice at thermoneutrality.

The limits to sustained energy intake are important because of their implications for reproductive output, foraging behaviour and thermoregulatory capabilities. Recent attempts to elucidate the nature of the limits to sustained energy intake have focused on peak lactation, which is the most energetically demanding period for female mammals. The hypothesis that performance of lactating animals is limited peripherally by the capacity of mammary glands to produce milk has received the most attention. However, some empirical data cannot be explained by the peripheral limitation hypothesis. Here, we present a novel hypothesis that the limits to sustained energy intake at peak lactation are imposed by the capacity of the animal to dissipate body heat generated as a by-product of processing food and producing milk. To test the heat dissipation limit hypothesis we challenged reproducing MF1 laboratory mice (N=67) with a reduced potential heat flow between the animal and the environment by exposing them to 30 degrees C (thermoneutral zone). We compared their food intake and reproductive output at peak lactation with animals studied previously at 21 degrees C (N=71) and 8 degrees C (N=15). Mice lactating at 30 degrees C had a significantly lower mean asymptotic food intake (12.4 g day(-1)) than those at 21 degrees C (23.5 g day(-1)) and 8 degrees C (28.6 g day(-1)). On average, mice at 30 degrees C raised significantly fewer (9.8) and smaller (6.1 g) pups than those at 21 degrees C (11.3 pups; 7.0 g per pup) and smaller pups than those at 8 degrees C (9.6 pups; 7.3 g per pup). Consequently, mean litter mass at 30 degrees C (56.0 g) was significantly lower than at 21 degrees C (77.1 g) and at 8 degrees C (68.7 g). The mean rate of litter mass increase at 30 degrees C (2.1 g day(-1)) was also lower than at 21 degrees C (3.1 g day(-1)). The reduced food intake and low reproductive output in mice lactating at 30 degrees C are consistent with the heat dissipation limit hypothesis.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Acute effects of a single exercise class on appetite, energy intake and mood. Is there a time of day effect?

This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of a single exercise class on appetite sensations, energy intake and mood, and to determine if there was a time of day effect. Twelve healthy, young, normal weight females, who were non-regular exercisers, participated in four trials: morning control, morning exercise, evening control and evening exercise. Exercise trials were a one-hour class of aerobic and muscle conditioning exercise of varying intensities, to music. Control trials were a one-hour rest. Ratings of perceived exertion were significantly greater during the warm-up and muscle conditioning parts of the morning exercise trial compared to those of the evening exercise trial. Although both exercise trials, compared to control trials, produced an increase in appetite sensations, they did not alter energy intake and produced a decrease in 'relative' energy intake. In relation to mood, both exercise trials increased positive affect and decreased negative affect. These results suggest that a single exercise class, representative of that offered by many sports centres, regardless of whether it is performed in the morning or evening produces a short-term negative energy balance and improves mood in normal weight women. However, when this type of exercise was performed in the morning it was perceived to require more effort.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Influence of male broiler breeder dietary energy intake on reproduction and progeny growth.

A study was conducted to test the effects of dietary energy intake on reproduction in genetically similar broiler breeder males and on the subsequent growth of their progeny. Fifty-nine 1-d-old pedigree broiler breeder male chicks were raised to breeding age. At 33 wk of age, 33 males were chosen and placed in one of three groups of 11 males per group and fed either 370, 330, or 290 kcal per bird per d. Each group contained both full and half brothers and had similar 6- and 33-wk mean body weights. There was a significant negative effect of decreased dietary energy intake on sperm concentration and total live sperm per milliliter of ejaculate, whereas there was no significant effect on ejaculate volume or percentage dead sperm per ejaculate. Four groups of hens (21 wk of age) with 18 hens per group, were randomly assigned to each male dietary treatment group. Hens were artificially inseminated with 50 microL neat pooled semen from one of the three male treatment groups. There was a significant linear effect of diet on fertility, with no significant effect on hatch of fertile, hatch of eggs set, or embryonic mortality. There was no effect of sire energy intake on offspring body weights at 0, 3, or 6 wk of age. Hens were similarly artificially inseminated and sperm penetration determined for 9 consecutive d postinsemination. There was a significant quadratic relationship between sperm penetration of the perivitelline layer overlying the germinal disc and day postinsemination for each of the three male treatment groups. In addition, mean sperm penetration was 62.3, 42.9, and 6.6 holes in the germinal disc perivitelline layer for the high, medium, and low energy groups, respectively. Following 16 wk of dietary energy treatment, there was a significant linear effect of diet on mean testes weight, mean testes weight as a percentage of male body weight, and male body weight.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Effect of protein and protein-free energy intake on myofibrillar protein degradation in preruminant calves of 120 and 200 kilograms of live weight.

We studied the effect of protein and protein-free energy intake on the degradation rate of myofibrillar protein in preruminant calves in two experiments. Both experiments were similar in design but were performed with two live weight ranges: 80 to 160 kg (Exp. 1) and 160 to 240 kg (Exp. 2). In each experiment, calves were allocated to either an initial slaughter group or to one of 12 treatments (three calves per treatment), which consisted of six protein intake levels at each of two protein-free energy intake levels. Calves were slaughtered and analyzed for body composition when they had reached the target weight. A balance trial was performed when calves had reached 120 and 200 kg BW in Exp. 1 and 2, respectively. Myofibrillar protein degradation rate was measured by the urinary excretion of 3-methylhistidine. Correction of 3-methylhistidine excretion for myofibrillar protein mass was performed based either on the urinary creatinine excretion rate or on estimated body composition during the balance trial. In both experiments, fractional rates of myofibrillar protein degradation increased with increasing protein intake (P < .01). Fractional degradation rates increased with increasing protein-free energy intake in Exp. 1 (P < .10) and in Exp. 2 (P < .05). We conclude that the increased protein deposition rates, reported earlier, induced by nutrient intake are accompanied by increased myofibrillar protein degradation rates. Furthermore, we consider urinary creatinine excretion to be unreliable as an estimator of myofibrillar protein mass in experiments in which a large range of nutrient intakes is applied.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

A trade-off between energy intake and exposure to parasites in oystercatchers feeding on a bivalve mollusc.

Models of animal dispersion between habitat patches that differ in resource density assume that animals maximize their fitness by maximizing the rate at which they consume resources. How valid is this assumption? Studies on wading birds have been central to the application of dispersion models to predator-prey systems. However, these birds do not always attempt to maximize their rate of energy intake, implying that maximization involves costs as well as benefits. Overwintering oystercatchers feeding on cockles in the Burry Inlet, South Wales, do not consume the larger more energetically profitable cockles even though consuming these prey would increase their rate of energy intake. This paper tests the hypothesis that maximizing energy intake involves a trade-off with exposure to helminth parasites. Cockles are important intermediate hosts for helminth parasites, for which oystercatchers are the definitive host. The helminth intensity of cockles increased significantly with cockle size. A functional response model was used to examine how size selection by the birds influenced energy intake and the ingestion rate of parasites. To maximize energy intake birds should selectively consume the larger size classes, but to minimize the ingestion rate of parasites they should consume the smallest size classes. In the wild, birds selectively consumed intermediate size classes, which could represent a compromise between these conflicting demands. The implications for animal dispersion models are discussed.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Rapid versus gradual refeeding in acute gastroenteritis in childhood: energy intake and weight gain.

Fifty-two children aged 6-46 months (mean 19 months), hospitalized for acute gastroenteritis (GE), were randomized after oral rehydration to receive 7 days of either traditional gradual refeeding (GR) or rapid refeeding (RR), the latter consisting of a full-strength lactose-limited diet, including lactase-treated whole milk. The study focused on the effect of a high energy intake, excluding possible negative effects of lactose. Both dietary regimens were well tolerated, the only difference in the clinical symptoms between the two regimens being a higher stool frequency within the RR group (p less than 0.02). The total energy intake, as well as energy derived from fat and protein, was significantly higher in the RR than in the GR group (p less than 0.0001). The mean daily energy intake of the latter group never reached recommended daily allowance (RDA) levels, while that of the RR group did on day 5. Moreover, during the whole period of dietary regimen, the RR group exceeded the RDA protein requirements (mean intake ranged 175-252%), while the GR group did not reach this RDA level until day 4. Milk was a major source of energy in the RR group, providing 47-59% of the daily energy intake. The short- and long-term weight gains in the RR group were only a little higher than those of the GR group, the difference being insignificant.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Acute Disease↗

PubMed1992

The effects of varying protein and energy intakes on the growth and body composition of pigs. 2. The effects of varying both energy and protein intake.

The objective of the experiment was to define the form of the relationship between varying levels of protein and energy intake and the performance of young pigs. Forty-four young-pigs were assigned at 12 kg live weight for 6 weeks either to an initial slaughter group (n 8) or to one of the nine feeding treatments (n 4); three allowances of a high-protein food with 355 g crude protein (nitrogen x 6.25; CP)/kg (P1, P2, P3) at three levels of feeding (L, M and H). Each feeding level was met by supplementing the allowance of feed P with the appropriate amount of starch and each treatment had two males and two females. The rate of protein deposition was not affected by feeding level at the two lowest allowances of basal feed P (P1 and P2), but it increased with increasing the feeding level for the pigs on treatment P3. Males deposited more protein than females, but this effect was more pronounced with treatment P3. The rate of lipid deposition increased with each increase in the level of feeding and decreased with increasing the allowance of feed P. The calculated efficiency of protein utilization (ep) was expressed as a function of the energy:protein ratio in the feed (MJ metabolizable energy/kg digestible CP). The best model to describe the relationship was a linear-plateau model, with the maximum value for ep of 0.814 at 73 MJ/kg. This relationship provided the basis of a model that could predict the response of a growing pig to its diet as rates of protein and lipid retention.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

The evaluation of energy intake adjustments and preferences in juvenile rainbow trout fed increasing amounts of lipid.

This study aimed at a better understanding of the feed intake (FI) regulation in rainbow trout by dietary digestible energy (DE). The DE contents of the three diets (20.5, 23.0 and 24.7 kJ per g dry diet) were modified by supplementing different amounts of fish oil. The crude lipid and protein levels were 13%, 26% and 34% and 64%, 54% and 48%, respectively (% dry diet). The daily FI was measured by means of self-feeders in groups of rainbow trout (32-55 g, initial BW) during two 5 to 6-week trials. Their eventual preference for one of the lipid levels was evaluated by offering the choice between a low and higher lipid diet. The results indicated that fish of a similar body mass had a similar FI without apparent energy intake compensations. It is believed that the excessive energy intakes with the higher lipid diets were not caused by a higher palatability of these diets since the trout did not express any particular preference. The trout fed the lipid rich diets had a higher level of body adiposity, but a similar protein growth. The observation that the trout did not reduce FI when fed the high lipid diet implies a low negative feedback by the ingested fat or by the increase in body adiposity. The similarities in lean carcass growth favour the idea that growing animals regulate their FI in order to meet the demand for maximal protein growth rather than to satisfy a predetermined energy requirement.

Animals↗

PubMed1975

Energy intake, disability, disease and skinfold thickness in a long-stay hospital.

Body build was assessed by measuring supinator and triceps skinfold thickness of 66 elderly patients in a long-stay hospital. Nursing staff made seven day records of the food intakes for the subjects. These were used to estimate calorie intakes. There was no relationship between energy intake and skinfold thickness. Reduced skinfold thicknesses were more common in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis or a previous fractured neck of femur than in those with cerebro-vascular disease or any other disorder. The findings suggest that the body build of long-stay patients is usually determined by their energy intake prior to admission. The feeding patterns of patients, once they are admitted, have little effect on body build.

Aged↗

PubMed2007

Effects of dietary energy intake and cold exposure on kinetics of plasma glucose metabolism in sheep.

An isotope dilution method using [U-(13)C]glucose injection was applied to determine the effects of dietary energy intake and cold exposure on plasma glucose metabolism in sheep. The sheep were assigned to two dietary treatments and were fed on diets containing either 100% or 160% of ME and both containing 150% of dietary crude protein intake for maintenance. The sheep were exposed from a thermoneutral environment (23 degrees C) to a cold environment (2-4 degrees C) for 5 days. The isotope dilution method was performed on the 18th day in the thermoneutral environment and on the fifth day of cold exposure. Plasma concentrations of glucose and NEFA increased (p < 0.05) during cold exposure for both diets. Plasma glucose pool size remained unchanged (p = 0.67), but plasma glucose turnover rate tended to increase (p = 0.07) with increased energy intake. Both pool size and turnover rate of plasma glucose increased (p = 0.01 and p = 0.0001, respectively) during cold exposure. No significant diet x environment interaction was detected. It is concluded that plasma glucose metabolism was influenced by both dietary energy intake and cold exposure, and plasma glucose metabolism in response to cold exposure was not modified by energy intake in sheep under the conditions (2-4 degrees C on the fifth day) of the present experiment.

Animal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena↗

PubMed2005

The energy intake that is needed for weight gain in COPD candidates for lung transplantation.

Many patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have increased resting energy expenditure (REE) and may have an increased need for energy during activity. However, in terms of total energy balance, the influence of differences in REE may be compensated for by differences in daily energy expenditure. Energy needs may therefore be difficult to predict by measuring REE. The aim of this study was to predict the energy intake necessary for weight gain following dietary counselling. We studied 42 COPD patients (n = 27 underweight, n = 15 normal-weight) who were being considered for lung transplantation and had completed an intervention lasting a mean of 22 weeks. In the underweight patients, the dietary intervention consisted of dietary counselling for weight gain, while, in the normal-weight patients it focused on weight maintenance. It has been shown that a weight gain of over 2 kg in patients with COPD improves the prognosis and this was obtained in 52% of our patients. The mean (SD) increase in energy intake in the responders was 3448 (1310) kJ, while it was 635 (2454) kJ, p < 0.01 in the non-responders. Patients who used or had free access to nutritional supplements did not show greater success than patients who only used ordinary foods. Based on the relationship between the dependent variable (kg weight change) and the independent variable (energy intake), we can use linear regression to predict that an energy intake of 180% of REE predicted or 186 kJ/kg (44 kcal/kg) is necessary to obtain a weight gain of 2 kg.

Counseling↗

PubMed1995

Protein and lipid accretion in body components of growing gilts (20 to 45 kilograms) as affected by energy intake.

Twenty-eight commercial hybrid gilts with a high genetic capacity for lean gain were used to determine the relationships between energy intake and tissue deposition and body composition between 20 and 45 kg BW. Four pigs were killed at 20 kg to determine body composition at the beginning of the experiment. The other 24 gilts received one of six intake levels (1.7, 2.2, 2.7, 3.2, and 3.7 times maintenance [M], and ad libitum) ranging from 11.3 to 27.2 MJ of DE/d. At 45 kg BW, the gilts were killed and dissected into carcass and organ fractions. Carcasses of pigs at 2.2 and 3.7 x M were dissected into lean and other carcass parts. Daily gain increased linearly (P < .001) from 371 to 1,075 g/d. Gain/feed increased (P < .01) from 500 to 600 g/kg. Deposition rates of protein and lipid increased linearly (P < .001) from 75 to 172 g/d and from 28 to 193 g/d, respectively. The ratio between lipid and protein deposition increased (P < .001) from .3 to 1.1. The relative organ mass increased (P < .001) with increasing energy intake, whereas the body lean percentage decreased (P < .01) from 53.9% at 2.2 x M to 47.4% at 3.7 x M. In the carcass and organs, protein content decreased (P < .01) and lipid content increased (P < .001) with increasing energy intake. Protein deposition increased with 5.77 g/MJ increase in DE intake, of which only approximately 40% was deposited in the lean tissue.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Rat serum osteocalcin concentration is decreased by restriction of energy intake.

We studied the effects of energy restriction on serum osteocalcin concentration and bone formation rate in rats. The experiment was designed to achieve energy restriction by reducing the carbohydrate intake while providing identical quantities of protein, fat, vitamins and minerals. Energy intakes of three groups of post-weaning male rats were restricted by 20, 40 and 60% for 4 wk. Serum calcium, phosphorus, transthyretin, triiodothyronine (T3), thyroxine (T4), 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol and immunoreactive parathyroid hormone (iPTH) concentrations were determined. Energy restriction (20, 40 and 60%) produced a significant and gradual drop of serum osteocalcin concentrations, although the serum concentrations of its key regulators, i.e., 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol and iPTH, were not significantly affected. On the contrary, serum concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, transthyretin, T3 and T4 were significantly lower in the energy-restricted groups. However, our results do not support their implication in the regulation of serum osteocalcin synthesis by energy intake. Serum osteocalcin concentration was positively correlated with bone mineral apposition (r = 0.50, P < 0.05) and bone mineralization (r = 0.50, P < 0.05) rates suggesting that its decrease resulted from a reduction of bone formation, and not from abnormal mineralization, because osteoid seam thickness was not modified. Energy intake seems to be an important determinant of serum osteocalcin concentration and bone formation; however, the exact mechanism underlying this regulation remains to be determined.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Impact of dietary fat content and fat oxidation on energy intake in humans.

Three studies were performed to assess the effects of a high-fat diet and exercise-induced changes in fat oxidation on energy intake in humans. In the first study the short-term effect of a high-fat diet on spontaneous energy intake was investigated. The second study evaluated the long-term effect of a high-fat diet on adiposity and the third study evaluated the effect of exercise-induced changes in fat oxidation on short-term regulation of energy intake when subjects were consuming a high-fat diet. The results of these studies indicate that a high-fat diet induces a short-term hyperphagia, a high percentage of lipids in the usual diet is associated with a higher adiposity, and exercise may attenuate or amplify the high-fat, diet-induced hyperphagia, depending on the magnitude of the exercise-induced increase in fat oxidation.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2004

Under-reporting of energy intake in the 1997 National Nutrition Survey.

AIMS: To estimate the level of under-reporting of energy intake by gender, age, ethnicity and body size (normal, overweight, obese) in the 1997 National Nutrition Survey (NNS97) in New Zealand. METHODS: Data were from 4,258 participants (1,808 men and 2,450 women aged 15 years and over) who completed the 24-hour diet recall; the primary methodology used in the NNS97. Under-reporting was assessed using the ratio of reported energy intake to estimated resting metabolic rate (EI: RMRest). Cut-off limits were used to identify percentages of under-reporters in the various subgroups. RESULTS: Mean EI: RMRest was 1.40 for all participants (1.51 for men, 1.30 for women, p<0.001) with older age being associated with lower EI: RMRest (p<0.001). There were no significant differences in mean EI: RMRest between ethnic groups for men. Mean EI: RMRest for women were: Maori 1.46, European 1.29, and Pacific 1.37 (p<0.01). A larger body size was associated with a significantly lower EI: RMRest especially for women. Percentages of 'definite' under-reporters (individual EI: RMRest <0.9) were as follows: men 12%, women 21%; Europeans 16%, Maori 23% and Pacific 26%; normal weight (11%), overweight (19%) and obese (27%) participants; and from 10% in the youngest to 23% in the oldest age group (p<0.001 for all results). CONCLUSION: In this study, in agreement with the literature, women, older people and obese people under-reported more than men, younger people and non-obese people. Possible ethnic differences in under-reporting rates need further study. Care is needed in interpreting the energy intake data from the NNS97.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Provision of small, frequent meals does not improve energy intake of elderly residents with dysphagia who live in an extended-care facility.

Malnutrition and dehydration are potential consequences of dysphagia, a common swallowing disorder among elderly individuals. Providing smaller, more frequent meals has been suggested (but not demonstrated) to improve energy intake among this group. Accordingly, this study was designed to assess whether the same energy content in five vs three daily meals would improve energy intake. Thirty-seven residents of an extended-care facility, aged older than 65 years, previously evaluated for dysphagia, and receiving a texture-modified diet, agreed to participate in a crossover study with random assignment to three or five meals during an initial 4-day study period, followed by the opposite meal pattern in a second period. Six were excluded from analysis, as their medical condition deteriorated before or during the study. Food and fluids consumed by participants during each study period were weighed before and after each meal. Average energy intakes were similar between the three- and five-meal patterns (1,325+/-207 kcal/day vs 1,342+/-177 kcal/day, respectively; P=0.565); fluid intake was higher with five meals (698+/-156 mL/day) vs three (612+/-176 mL/day; P=0.003). Because offering five daily feedings did not improve energy intakes when compared with three, dietitians caring for this vulnerable group might need to consider other nutrition intervention strategies.

Aged↗

PubMed1999

Energy density of the diet, food volume and energy intake by age and sex in a healthy population.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the changes in energy intake (EI), food intake volume (FV) and energy density (ED) related to age and gender in a population in the Mediterranean area of Spain, and to determine the different role of FV and ED on the consecution of the adequate EI throughout lifespan. SUBJECTS: One thousand and eighty-eight individuals (1-65 y) randomly selected from the population census. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study in which food intake was quantified by 24 h dietary recall, three non-consecutive days. Height and weight measurements were taken in 885 individuals. RESULTS: EI, FV and ED increased progressively (P < 0.001) between 1-2 y and 10-12 y of age in both sexes. At 1-2 y the EI is 5.8+/-1.5 MJ/d, FV 1195+/-275 g/d and ED 4.8+/-0.9 kJ/g. Between 1-2 and 3-4 y, coinciding with an EI that increased up to 7.2+/-1.5 MJ/d, there was an increase in ED up to 6.1+/-0.8 kJ/g (P < 0.001), while the FV did not vary significantly. At the start of puberty, between 7-9 and 10-12 y, when the EI increased to 9.7+/-0.9 MJ/d (P < 0.001) in males, the ED rose to 7.1+/-0.9 kJ/g (P < 0.001) while the FV did not vary significantly. At this age, a significant difference between the genders was observed in the EI (P = 0.04), and in the ED (P = 0.02) but not, as yet, in the FV. During adulthood, a significant trend towards decrease (P < 0.001 in both sexes) was observed in EI and ED. However, FV decreased significantly only in females. CONCLUSIONS: The changes in energy intake that were observed with respect to age and gender were accommodated-for by changes in the ED of the diet rather than by variations in food volume intake. Autoregulation of the ED of the diet, sufficient for energy intake requirement changes, appears to be an essential human capacity for efficient nutrition.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Energy intake and appetite are suppressed by glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in obese men.

BACKGROUND: Peripheral administration of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) for four hours, to normal weight and obese humans, decreases food intake and suppresses appetite. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the effect of an eight hour infusion of GLP-1 on appetite and energy intake at lunch and dinner in obese subjects. DESIGN: Randomised, blinded cross-over design with intravenous infusion of GLP-1 (0.75 pmol x kg(-1) min(-1)) or saline. SUBJECTS: Eight obese (body mass index, BMI, 45.5 +/- 2.3 kg/m2) male subjects. MEASUREMENTS: Ad libitum energy intake at lunch (12.00 h) and dinner (16.00 h) after an energy fixed breakfast (2.4 MJ) at 08.00 h. Appetite sensations using visual analogue scales, (VAS) immediately before and after meals and hourly in-between. Blood samples for the analysis of glucose, insulin, C-peptide, GLP-1 and peptide YY. Gastric emptying after breakfast and lunch using a paracetamol absorption technique. RESULTS: Hunger ratings were significantly lower with GLP-1 infusion. The summed ad libitum energy intake at lunch and dinner was reduced by 1.7 +/- 0.5 MJ (21 +/- 6%) by GLP-1 infusion (P = 0.01). Gastric emptying was delayed by GLP-1 infusion, and plasma glucose concentrations decreased (baseline: 6.6 +/- 0.35 mmol/L; nadir: 5.3 +/- 0.15 mmol/L). No nausea was recorded during GLP-1 infusion. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that GLP-1 decreases feelings of hunger and reduces energy intake in obese humans. One possible mechanism for this finding might be an increased satiety primarily mediated by gastric vagal afferent signals.

Adult↗