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PubMed2005

Essential fatty acids and their derivatives.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review will address recent research in metabolism of essential fatty acids and their long chain derivatives. Our main focus will be the association between essential fatty acid status and various disease states, as well as the effects of supplementation with essential fatty acids or their derivatives on a number of clinical outcomes. RECENT FINDINGS: There have been several papers over the last few years that show links between supplementation with fish oil (n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) and cardiovascular disease. Recent data suggest that the use of fish oil (containing n-3 fatty acids) in a variety of disorders such as cystic fibrosis, coronary disease and in the prevention of sudden death is beneficial. Several papers show reductions in systemic markers of inflammation. More widespread use of essential fatty acid derivatives in infant formula can certainly be questioned on the basis of the recent data. Fewer benefits are seen with ingestion of the essential fatty acids themselves, likely related to limited conversion to their long chain derivatives in humans. SUMMARY: Derivatives of essential fatty acids have the potential to modify a number of disease states, either ingested in greater quantities in the diet, or taken as supplements in the form of fish oil.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Essential fatty acid deficiency and CNS myelin. Biochemical and morphological observations.

Essential fatty acid (EFA) deficiency was induced by feeding pregnant rats a fat-free diet 10--12 days after impregnation and maintaining the offspring on this diet until 120 days of age. EFA-deficiency rats demonstrated marked alterations in the fatty acid composition of ethanolamine phosphoglycerides (EPG's) from myelin subfractions. A decrease in the fatty acids of the linoleic (n-6) and linolenic (n-3) families was accompanied by an increase in the non-essential fatty acids of the oleic (n-9) family. These alterations decreased the unsaturation index of heavy myelin by 23% and that of light myelin by 10%. The EPG fatty acid composition of heavy myelin from control animals contained a higher percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids than the light myelin which contained more monounsaturated fatty acids. These differences may be a reflection of distinct anatomical locations or functional properties of the subfractions. The differences between light and heavy myelin EPG fatty acids were not maintained during EFA deficiency. Morphologically, 1 mum thick sections revealed vacuoles within the optic nerve of EFA-deficient rats. Ultrastructurally these vacuoles were identified as fibers undergoing Wallerian degeneration and fibers demonstrating intramyelinic splitting. No qualitative changes were found in oligodendrocytes, astrocytes or vascular elements within EFA-deficient optic nerve. EFA deficiency did not alter the diameter of fibers within the optic nerve. These results show that although there is no apparent decrease in the degree of myelination within the optic nerve, morphological changes do occur in fibers of EFA-deficient optic nerve concomitantly with alterations in the EPG fatty acids of myelin subfractions.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Nutrients, essential fatty acids and prostaglandins interact to augment immune responses and prevent genetic damage and cancer.

Micronutrients, vitamins A, C, and E, beta-carotene, and selenium can decrease the incidence of cancer, possibly due to their antioxidant action(s). These nutrients prevent lipid peroxidation, especially that of gamma-linolenic, dihomo-gamma-linolenic and arachidonic acids, the precursors of prostaglandins. Gammma-linolenic acid (GLA), dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) and prostacyclin can prevent genetic damage in vitro and in vivo. They augment immune responses and tumoricidal actions of macrophages. Prostacyclin also has anti-metastatic properties. Zinc, magnesium, calcium and pyridoxine are cofactors in the formation of GLA, DGLA, PGE1 and PGI2. Hence, in situations where there is a reduced intake of trace elements and vitamins, there may be a decrease in the synthesis of GLA, DGLA, PGE1 and PGI2, leading to immune suppression and genetic damage that cannot be reversed or prevented. In the presence of adequate amounts of selenium, beta-carotene and Vitamin A and E, peroxidation of GLA/DGLA/AA would not occur, so that they are available for the synthesis of PGE1 and PGI2. This interaction between nutrients, essential fatty acids and prostaglandins can be exploited to develop new preventive and therapeutic strategies in cancer.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Effect of an essential fatty acid deficiency on the phospholipid composition in anterior pituitary membranes.

The effects of an essential fatty acid deficient diet were investigated on the phospholipid fatty acids of several membrane fractions of the rat anterior pituitary, the secretion of which is known to be partly dependent on the membrane phospholipidic constituents. In standard dietary conditions, arachidonic acid (20:4n-6) and its elongation product, adrenic acid (22:4n-6), were the two main polyunsaturated fatty acids in all fractions studied. In rats deprived of EFA for 6 weeks after weaning, the levels of both 20:4n-6 and 22:4n-6 were not changed in microsomal + plasma membrane and nuclear fractions, whereas they were decreased in heavy mitochondrial and light mitochondrial fractions. The present data suggest a mechanism of compensation between membrane fractions which may preferentially preserve 20:4n-6 and 22:4n-6 in discrete membrane fractions.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Interrelationship between protein-energy malnutrition and essential fatty acid deficiency in nursing infants.

The influence of severe protein-calorie malnutrition on essential fatty acid (EFA) status was evaluated in nursing infants aged 2-5 mo. A control group of the same age and with normal weight-for-height was also selected for this study. The fatty acid pattern of total phospholipids from plasma and red blood cells (RBCs) was determined and then used as a biochemical variable for evaluating EFA status. A sharp fall in the relative percentage of n-6 (omega-6) fatty acids concomitant with an increase in the n-9 fatty acids in plasma and RBC phospholipids was observed. These results are consistent with the picture of EFA deficiency and showed that the deficiency state is well correlated with the severity of malnutrition. Calculation of the product-precursor ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from linoleic acid (18:2n-6) in RBC phospholipids provides evidence for an impairment in the elongation-desaturation pathway promoted by the protein-calorie malnutrition.

Breast Feeding↗
PubMed1994

Low levels of essential fatty acids are related to impaired delayed skin hypersensitivity in malnourished chronically ill elderly people.

Essential fatty acid (FA) deficiency, which may accompany protein-energy malnutrition (PEM), has been associated with impaired inflammatory reactions. We evaluated this relationship by analysing FA profiles and delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity in 20 malnourished elderly non-cancer patients and in 20 age-matched control patients. As indicated by serum cholesterol and serum triglycerides, the lipid levels were decreased by about one-third in the subjects with PEM. In comparison with the controls, there was a reduction in the omega 3 FA (e.g. eicosapentanoate) in total serum lipids (mg l-1) and serum phospholipids (%) of 40% and 47%, respectively. Reductions in serum omega 6 FA (e.g. linoleate and arachidonate) levels corresponded to the drop in total FA concentrations (30%). The cutaneous hypersensitivity was impaired in 14 of the malnourished patients. The magnitude of the skin reaction was positively correlated (P < 0.05) to the concentrations of eicosapentanoate in serum lipids and serum phospholipids, as well as to the linoleate concentration in total serum lipids. Six of the malnourished patients took part in a nutritional intervention programme for 3 months. In parallel with an improvement in the nutritional status there was a 35% increase (P < 0.05) in the total omega 3 FA serum concentration. Negative skin tests became positive and the median skin induration enlarged threefold (P < 0.05). Thus, deficiency of omega 3 FA might be one factor contributing to cutaneous anergy in elderly malnourished patients.

Aged↗
PubMed1993

Essential fatty acids in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether essential fatty acids are effective in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind, crossover trial, we studied 27 women diagnosed with PMS over ten menstrual cycles and 22 symptom-free controls over one cycle. The first cycle was used for diagnostic assessment. For the women with PMS, placebos were administered during the second cycle. This was followed by randomization to four cycles of active treatment with essential fatty acids and four cycles of placebo, with a crossover after completion of the fourth cycle. Assessment of symptoms and diagnosis of PMS were based on daily self-ratings made by the women throughout the study. RESULTS: Treatment with essential fatty acids did not reduce premenstrual symptoms or symptom cyclicity. However, time had a significant effect on a number of symptoms, indicating either a placebo effect or an effect from participation in the study. Women with PMS had a significantly higher frequency of dysmenorrhea and familial PMS than did the symptom-free controls. CONCLUSION: Treatment with essential fatty acids is ineffective therapy for PMS. The improvement we observed over time can be ascribed to either a placebo effect or participation in the study.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Essential fatty acids and the vulnerability of the artery during growth.

Essential fatty acids not only control blood lipid levels, but are the precursors of prostaglandins responsible for regulation of platelet aggregation. Dietary deficiency of essential fatty acids may play an important role in the development of coronary heart disease, particularly during the early growth period.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Food intake in rats is unaffected by the profile of dietary essential fatty acids.

Food intake may be differentially responsive to the type of fat in the diet. The present investigation sought to evaluate the energy intake of rats maintained on either a low-fat or a high-fat diet mixed with an oil rich in either linoleic (18:2; n-6; safflower oil) or linolenic (18:3; n-3; flaxseed oil) acid. In Experiment 1, rats (n=28) consumed low-fat versions of either the safflower oil diet or the flaxseed oil diet, each at 9.28% fat (wt/wt). In Experiment 2, different rats (n=28) consumed high-fat versions of these diets, each at 23.6% fat (wt/wt). Within each experiment, the energy intake of rats receiving the safflower oil diet was compared to the energy intake of rats receiving the flaxseed oil diet. Food intake was measured under short-term, long-term and food-deprived conditions. In Experiment 1, short-term energy intakes were not different between the groups, thus demonstrating equal acceptance of the test diets. There were no consistent differences in long-term energy intakes between the safflower group and the flaxseed group. In addition, there were no differences in energy intake under the food-deprivation condition. Results from Experiment 2 paralleled those of Experiment 1. Taken together, the present results suggest that the essential fatty acid profile of the maintenance diet does not influence food intake when nutritive oils are the predominant fatty acid source.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1992

Essential fatty acids are not required for wound healing.

Rats with essential fatty acid deficiency (EFAD) exhibit mild body growth retardation, diminished leukocyte influx in certain models of inflammation, and skin lesions characterized by ulceration, thinning and decreased pigmentation. In the present study we examined the role of EFAD in cutaneous wound healing, a process in which the inflammatory response and the macrophage play a central role. We reproduced the EFAD condition in Lewis rats (n = 35), and examined its effects in wound healing using the paired rat surgical incision model. Rats were compared with weight-matched controls, receiving standard chow diet. Skin samples harvested at days 5, 7, 14 and 21 post-wounding were evaluated for tensiometry and histology. EFAD rats exhibited all the characteristics of this condition, and the typical alteration of liver lipids. Skin samples harvested at different days post-wounding did not show difference in maximal breaking strength when compared to weight-matched controls. Histological evaluation of skin samples showed no difference in the cellular inflammatory infiltration in either EFAD rats or in weight-matched controls. Immunohistochemical studies revealed no difference in the influx of macrophages in the different groups of rats. Fatty acid supplementation of EFAD rats (n = 7), successfully reversed the EFAD state as assessed by the macroscopic skin and liver changes and liver fatty acid content, without modifying either tensile strength or cellular inflammatory infiltration. Our results suggest that EFAD does not alter the normal course of the cutaneous wound repair in rats, despite all the cutaneous alterations produced by this condition. We conclude that essential fatty acids (EFAs) are not essential for cutaneous wound repair.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Essential fatty acid patterns in preeclampsia.

Fatty acid patterns were determined for maternal and cord sera from normal and preeclamptic pregnancies using gas liquid chromatography. Ten normal and 11 preeclamptic maternal sera were used; 6 preeclamptic and 6 normal cord sera were measured. Fatty acid patterns were measured in the nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), the triglycerides (TG), the cholesterol esters (CE), and the phospholipids (PL). Preeclampsia showed significant differences in the essential fatty acid patterns in the maternal and cord sera compared to normal pregnancy. Oleic acid, an early indicator of essential fatty acid deficiency, made up a significantly greater proportion of preeclamptic cord blood NEFA, TG, and PL than in normal cord blood. Abnormalities in essential fatty acid patterns may be associated with decreased prostacyclin production and dysmaturity which may be seen with preeclampsia.

Arachidonic Acid↗
PubMed1981

Essential fatty acid status in cystic fibrosis and the effects of safflower oil supplementation.

The fatty acid compositions of serum phospholipids, cholesteryl esters, triglycerides, and free fatty acids were determined on a group of cystic fibrosis patients. These were compared with similar data from random hospitalized patients of the same age groups of both sexes. Fatty acid patterns in all lipid classes were skewed in the direction of essential fatty acid deficiency, but the differences were most dramatic in phospholipids. Many calculated parameters useful as indices of essential fatty acid status indicated that essential fatty acid deficiency exists in cystic fibrosis. Treatment of 11 cystic fibrosis patients with safflower oil (1 g/kg/day) failed to correct the aberrations in fatty acid pattern. The biochemical data suggest that there may be an impairment in conversion of linoleate to arachidonate as well as an impairment of absorption.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Patients with anorexia nervosa demonstrate deficiencies of selected essential fatty acids, compensatory changes in nonessential fatty acids and decreased fluidity of plasma lipids.

The objective of this study was to assess the essential fatty acid status of patients with anorexia nervosa. Blood was collected from eight fasting female anorexia nervosa patients with a mean of 81% ideal body weight. Fatty acid composition of phospholipids, nonesterified fatty acids, triglycerides and cholesteryl esters of plasma were determined by capillary gas chromatography to indicate polyunsaturated fatty acids status compared with 19 healthy female adults < 25 y old. Subjects with anorexia nervosa showed polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiencies in plasma phospholipids different from simple nutritional essential fatty acid deficiency or chronic malnutrition. The phospholipid profile showed significantly lower (n-6) and (n-3) elongation and desaturation products, and elevated short-chain saturated, short-chain monounsaturated, branched-chain and odd-chain fatty acids. These elevations indicate enhancement of biosynthesis of alternative fatty acids that only partially compensated for the loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids in providing membrane "fluidity." Calculated mean melting point of the fatty acids of phospholipids in patients with anorexia nervosa was elevated 7.7 degrees C above normal values. These results demonstrate that patients with anorexia nervosa have deficiencies of selected essential fatty acids, compensatory changes in nonessential fatty acids and decreased fluidity of plasma lipids.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Comparison between the essential fatty acid status of preterm and full-term infants, measured in umbilical vessel walls.

The essential fatty acid (EFA) composition of umbilical vessel walls is increasingly being studied as a longer-term reflection of the fetal EFA status. We evaluated the EFA content of umbilical artery and vein vessel walls in 43 preterm infants and compared it with that of 43 full-term cord vessels. In addition, relations among cord vessel wall fatty acid composition, gestational age (GA) at birth, and anthropometric parameters at birth (weight, head circumference, and length) were explored in the preterm infants. Generally, n-6 and n-3 EFA levels were lower, while levels of EFA deficiency markers were higher in preterm than in term cords, both in the walls of the draining arteries and the supplying vein. In preterm cords, significant correlations were observed between GA at birth and levels of n-6 and n-3 EFAs (positive) and EFA deficiency markers (negative). Birth weight showed significant (P < or = 0.01), positive correlations with n-6 and n-3 EFA levels in the cord artery walls of preterm infants, all after correction for GA at birth. In conclusion, substantial differences between the EFA profiles of preterm and full-term cord vessel walls indicate a lower biochemical EFA status of the preterm than of the term fetus. This lower preterm EFA status might be a reflection of a physiologically lower EFA demand for growth and development of the preterm fetus than of the term fetus.

Fatty Acids, Essential↗
PubMed2003

Potential role of dietary omega-3 essential fatty acids on some oxidant/antioxidant parameters in rats' corpus striatum.

Omega-3 (omega-3) is an essential fatty acid (EFA) found in large amounts in fish oil. It contains eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). DHA is one of the building structures of membrane phospholipids of brain and necessary for continuity of neuronal functions. Evidences support the hypothesis that schizophrenia may be the result of increased reactive oxygen species mediated neuronal injury. Recent reports also suggest the protective effect of omega-3 EFA against neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. This study proposed to assess the changes in antioxidant enzyme and oxidant parameters in the corpus striatum (CS) of rats fed with omega-3 EFA diet (0.4g/kg/day) for 30 days. Eight control rats and nine rats fed with omega-3 were decapitated under ether anesthesia, and CS was removed immediately. Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) and nitric oxide (NO) levels as well as total superoxide dismutase (t-SOD) and xanthine oxidase (XO) enzyme activities in the CS were measured. Rats treated with omega-3 EFA had significantly lower values of TBARS (P<0.001), NO (P<0.002) and XO (P<0.005) whereas higher values of t-SOD enzyme activity (P<0.002) than the control rats. These results indicate that omega-3 EFA rich fish oil diet reduces some oxidant parameters in CS. This may be revealed by means of reduced CS TBARS levels as an end product of lipid peroxidation of membranes in treated rats. Additionally, reduced XO activity and NO levels may support this notion. On the other hand, although the mechanism is not clear, omega-3 EFA may indirectly enhance the activity of antioxidant enzyme t-SOD. Taken together, this preliminary animal study provides strong support for a therapeutic effect of omega-3 EFA supplemented to classical neuroleptic regimen in the treatment of schizophrenic symptoms and tardive dyskinesia.

Animals↗
PubMed1976

Reversal of experimental essential fatty acid deficiency by cutaneous administration of safflower oil.

The intriguing observation that cutaneous application of essential fatty acid (EFA)-rich oil corrects the biochemical abnormalities of EFA deficiency was evaluated in EFA-deficient rats. Approximately 185 mg of safflower oil (140 mg of linoleic acid) were applied daily for 15 days to the kin of EFA-deficient rats. Before and after treatment with the safflower oil, the fatty acid patterns of plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid as well as of plasma triglyceride and cholesterol ester fractions were determined. The linoleic and arachidonic acid content of both plasma and erythrocyte phospholipid increased, while the eicosatrienoic acid content of both fractions decreased. The linoleic acid content of plasma triglyceride increased with safflower oil treatment, but little change occurred in the almost undetectable pretreatment levels of arachidonic and eicosatrienoic acid. In the plasma cholesterol ester fraction, arachidonic acid increased with treatment and eicosatrienoic acid decreased, but the small increase in the linoleic acid content was not statistically significant. Thus, the study confirms the observation that cutaneous application of EFA-rich oils reverses the plasma biochemical manifestation of EFA deficiency. In addition cutaneously applied EFA-rich oils reversed the biochemical manifestations of EFA deficiency in erythrocytes. Whether or not cutaneous application of such oils will prevent EFA deficiency, however, remains to be proven.

Administration, Oral↗