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PubMed2002

Homosexual tandem running as selfish herd in Reticulitermes speratus: novel antipredatory behavior in termites.

We investigated the predator avoidance mechanism of post-swarming alates of the lower subterranean termite, Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe. In some lower termites, homosexual tandem running is observed in addition to ordinary heterosexual tandem running. An experiment designed to compare the risk of predation by a termite-hunting ant, Brachyponera chinensis Emery, showed that homosexual tandem running reduced the predation risk until termites encounter the opposite sex. Since an individual ant cannot capture two dealates at once, one of the two dealates forming a tandem can escape while the ant captures its partner. Therefore, the "post-encounter risk" of individuals running in tandem was lower than that of single individuals. The "encounter risk" with predatory ants was also examined using a mathematical model considering the increased detectability of the predator due to enhanced size of the prey unit. It was suggested that tandem running reduces the predation risk of both participants, even when the enhanced encounter risk was taken into account. In males, competition for the back position was often observed, and consequently, the male at the back was always larger than the male in front. When a male-male tandem encountered a female, the back male won the female more often than the front male. This result suggested that male-male tandem running should result in selection pressure in favor of vigorous males. In conclusion, tandem running decreases the individual predation risk through the dilution effect, and it also plays a role as a mechanism of indirect sexual selection.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Glycogen depletion and resynthesis in the rat after downhill running.

To study the effect of downhill running on glycogen metabolism, 94 rats were exercised by running for 3 h on the level or down an 18 degrees incline. Muscle and liver glycogen concentrations were measured before exercise and 0, 48 and 52 h postexercise. Rats were not fed during the first 48 h of recovery but ingested a glucose solution 48 h postexercise. Downhill running depleted glycogen in the soleus muscle and liver significantly more than level running (P less than 0.01). The amount of glycogen resynthesized in the soleus muscle and liver in fasting or nonfasting rats was not altered significantly by downhill running (P greater than 0.05). On every day of recovery the rats were injected with dexamethasone, which induced similar increases in glycogen concentration in the soleus muscle and liver after the 52nd h of the postexercise period in the case of downhill and level running. The glycogen depletion and repletion results indicated that, under our experimental conditions, downhill running in the rat, a known model of eccentric exercise, affected muscle glycogen metabolism differently from eccentric cycling in humans.

Animals↗

PubMed1980

Force-, power-, and elasticity-velocity relationships in walking, running, and jumping.

Ground reaction forces and mechanical power were investigated when the subjects walked normally, while they were racing or running at four speeds, and when they performed the running long jump take-off. In addition, the apparent spring constants of the support leg in eccentric and concentric phases were investigated at the four running speeds, during the running long jump take-off, and in the triple jump. Six club level track and field athletes, four national level long jumpers, and six national level triple jumpers took part in the study. Cinematographic technique and a mathematical model of hopping (Alexander and Vernon 1975) were employed in the analysis. Force and power values were found to vary in the following order (from highest to lowest): long jump take-off, maximal running speed, submaximal running (80, 60, and 40% of maximum speed), racing gait, and normal gait. The data disclosed that the measured parameters had the highest values in the long jump take-off performed by the long jump athletes. Their peak values were: resultant ground reaction force 3270 +/- 74 N and mechanical power 160.1 +/- 10.5 J x kg-1 x s-1. For the track and field athletes the values were 2010 +/- 80 N and 126.0 +/0 12.6 J x kg-1 x s-1. The apparent spring constant values of the support leg in the national level jumper group were in eccentric phase 30.54 +/- 8.38 N x mm-1 x kg-1 and in concentric phase 0.129 +/- 0.012 N x mm-1 x kg-1. In the track and field athletes the values were 13.97 +/- 1.01 N x mm-1 x kg-1 and 0.093 +/- 0.003 N x mm-1 x kg-1, respectively. In general, the increase in force and mechanical power output was related to the value of the apparent spring constant of the support leg in the eccentric phase. The spring constant in the eccentric phase increased with the velocity of motion in running, the long jump take-off and the triple jump. This suggests that it may be possible to use this parameter as a measure of mechanical performance, as it may reflect the combined elasticity of muscles, tendons, and bones.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗

PubMed1996

The effects of buffer ingestion on metabolic factors related to distance running performance.

We examined the effects of sodium bicarbonate (BIC) and sodium citrate (CIT) ingestion on distance running performance. Seven male runners [mean VO2max = 61.7 (SEM 1.7) ml.kg-1.min-1] performed three 30-min treadmill runs at the lactate threshold (LT) each followed by a run to exhaustion at 110% of LT. The runs were double-blind and randomly assigned from BIC (0.3 g.kg body mass-1), CIT (0.5 g.kg body mass-1) and placebo (PLC, wheat flour, 0.5 g.kg body mass-1). Venous blood samples were collected at 5, 15 and 25 min during the run and immediately post-exhaustion (POST-EX) and analysed for pH, and the concentrations of lactate ([la-]b) and bicarbonate ([HCO3-]). Performance was measured as running time to exhaustion at 110% of LT (TIME-EX). The pH was significantly higher (P < or = 0.05) for the BIC and CIT trials during exercise, but not POST-EX compared to PLC. The [la-]b was significantly higher (P < or = 0.05) for the CIT trial compared to PLC during exercise, and for both CIT and BIC compared to PLC at POST-EX. Blood [HCO3-] was significantly higher (P < or = 0.05) during exercise for BIC compared to PLC. TIME-EX was not significantly different among treatments: BIC 287 (SEM 47.4)s; CIT 172.8 (SEM 29.7)s; and PLC 222.3 (SEM 39.7)s. Despite the fact that buffer ingestion produced favourable metabolic conditions during 30 min of high intensity steady-state exercise, a significant improvement in the subsequent maximal exercise run to exhaustion did not occur.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Gastric emptying during walking and running: effects of varied exercise intensity.

Gastric emptying is increased during running (50%-70% maximal aerobic uptake, VO2max) as compared to rest. Whether this increase varies as a function of mode (i.e. walking vs running) and intensity of treadmill exercise is unknown. To examine the gastric emptying characteristics of water during treadmill exercise performed over a wide range of intensities relative to resting conditions, 10 men ingested 400 ml of water prior to each of six 15 min exercise bouts or 15 min of seated rest. Three bouts of walking exercise (1.57 m.s-1) were performed at increasing grades eliciting approximately 28%, 41% or 56% of VO2max. On a separate day, three bouts of running (2.68 ms-1) exercise were performed at grades eliciting approximately 57%, 65% or 75% of VO2max. Gastric emptying was increased during treadmill exercise at all intensities excluding 75% VO2max as compared to rest. Gastric emptying was similar for all intensities during walking and at 57% and 65% VO2max during running. However, running at 74% VO2max decreased the volume of original drink emptied as compared to all lower exercise intensities. Stomach secretions were markedly less during running as compared to walking and rest. These data demonstrate that gastric emptying is similarly increased during both moderate intensity (approximately 28%-65% VO2max) walking or running exercise as compared to resting conditions. However, gastric emptying decreases during high intensity exercise. Increases in gastric emptying during moderate intensity treadmill exercise may be related to increases in intragastric pressure brought about by contractile activity of the abdominal muscles.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Ratings of perceived exertion in individuals with varying fitness levels during walking and running.

It was the purpose of this investigation to: 1) compare the ratings of perceived exertion (RPEs) in high and low fit individuals when walking and running at comparable exercise intensities and 2) to determine if ventilation (VE) provides a central signal for RPEs. Nine high fit and nine low fit male subjects completed two exercise bouts on a treadmill, one uphill walking and the other level running. Workloads for each bout were set at 90% of each subject's ventilatory threshold (VT) as determined from a graded exercise test. Oxygen consumption (Vo2), heart rate (HR), and VE were all similar between the walk and run trials for the low fit subjects (P greater than 0.05). HR were found to be significantly greater during the walk trial vs. the run trial (P less than 0.05) for the high fit subjects, whereas, VE was significantly greater during the run trial. Oxygen consumption was similar for the high fit subjects during both trials (P greater than 0.05). During the walk and run trials, central (12.1 +/- 1.6 vs. 11.4 +/- 1.5), local (14.0 +/- 1.3 vs. 13.9 +/- 1.1) and overall (12.8 +/- 1.2 vs. 12.4 +/- 1.4) RPEs were not found to be significantly different for the low fit group (P greater than 0.05). In contrast, during the walk vs. the run trial there was a significant increase in central (10.7 +/- 2.0 vs. 9.2 +/- 1.9), local (11.5 +/- 2.0 vs. 9.8 +/- 1.8) and overall (11.2 +/- 2.4 vs. 9.6 +/- 2.3) RPEs for the high fit group (P less than 0.05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗

PubMed1986

Longitudinal associations between anaerobic threshold and distance running performance.

Longitudinal alterations in anaerobic threshold (AT) and distance running performance were assessed three times within a 4-month period of intensive training, using 20 male, trained middle-distance runners (19-23 yr). A major effect of the high intensity regular intensive training together with 60- to 90-min AT level running training (2 d X wk-1) was a significant increase in the amount of O2 uptake corresponding to AT (VO2 AT; ml O2 X min-1 X kg-1) and in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max; ml O2 X min-1 X kg-1). Both VO2 AT and VO2max showed significant correlations (r = -0.69 to -0.92 and r = -0.60 to -0.85, respectively) with the 10,000 m run time in every test. However, further analyses of the data indicate that increasing VO2 AT (r = -0.63, P less than 0.05) rather than VO2max (r = -0.15) could result in improving the 10,000 m race performance to a larger extent, and that the absolute amount of change (delta) in the 10,000 m run time is best accounted for by a combination of delta VO2 AT and delta 5,000 m run time. Our data suggest that, among runners not previously trained over long distances, training-induced alterations in AT in response to regular intensive training together with AT level running training may contribute significantly to the enhancement of AT and endurance running performance, probably together with an increase in muscle respiratory capacity.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Carbohydrate ingestion does not influence the change in energy cost during a 2-h run in well-trained triathletes.

The aim of this study was to examine whether the increase in the energy cost of running (C(r)), previously reported to occur at the end of a prolonged run, could be influenced by the ingestion of either an artificially sweetened placebo (Pl) or a 5.5% carbohydrate (CHO) solution. Ten well-trained triathletes completed three testing sessions within a 3-week period. The aim of the first session was to determine maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2)(max)) and the velocity associated with ventilatory threshold (nu(VT)). The second and the third sessions were composed of two submaximal treadmill runs (20 min long, 0% grade, performed at nu(VT)), before and after an 80-min overground run, also conducted at nu(VT). During these submaximal tests, the subjects ingested (in a random order) either a Pl or CHO solution prior to the first submaximal run and every 20 min after that. During the first session, ventilatory threshold (VT) occurred at [mean (SD)] 81.2 (2.5)% VO(2)(max) and 16.5 (0.6) km. h(-1). A significant effect of exercise duration was found on C(r) (DeltaC(r)) at the end of the run, whatever the solution ingested (DeltaC(r) = 5.7% and 7.01% for CHO and Pl, respectively). A reduction in the respiratory exchange ratio (from 0.98 to 0.90) was observed only at the end of the Pl trial. In this study, C(r) seems to be affected only to a minor extent by substrate turnover. Moreover, the increase in the demand for oxygen, estimated from the increase in ventilation, accounted for only a minor proportion of the increase in C(r) (11% and 17% for CHO and Pl, respectively). No correlation was found between the changes in C(r) and the changes in the other physiological parameters recorded. These results suggest, indirectly, that C(r) increases during a 2-h run at 80% VO(2)(max) in well-trained subjects can be explained mainly by alterations in neuromuscular performance, which lead to a decrease in muscle efficiency.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed2002

Heart rate is lower during ergometer rowing than during treadmill running.

This study evaluated whether the heart rate (HR) response to exercise depends on body position and on the active muscle mass. The HR response to ergometer rowing (sitting and using both arms and legs) was compared to treadmill running (upright exercise involving mainly the legs) using a progressive exercise intensity protocol in 55 healthy men [mean (SD) height 176 (5) cm, body mass 71 (6) kg, age 21 (3) years]. During rowing HR was lower than during running at a blood lactate concentration of 2 mmol.l(-1) [145 (13) compared to 150 (11) beat.min(-1), P<0.05], 4 mmol.l(-1) [170 (10) compared to 177 (13) beat.min(-1), P<0.05], and 6 mmol.l(-1) [182 (10) compared to 188 (10) beat.min(-1), P<0.05]. Also during maximal intensity rowing, HR was lower than during maximal intensity running [194 (9) compared to 198 (11) beat.min(-1), P<0.05]. These results were accompanied by a higher maximal oxygen uptake during rowing than during running [rowing compared to running, 4.50 (0.5) and 4.35 (0.4) l.min(-1), respectively, P<0.01]. Thus, the oxygen pulse, as an index of the stroke volume of the heart, was higher during rowing than during running at any given intensity. The results suggest that compared to running, the seated position and/or the involvement of more muscles during rowing facilitate venous return and elicit a smaller HR response for the same relative exercise intensity.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Relationship between shock attenuation and stride length during running at different velocities.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the characteristics of shock attenuation during high-speed running. Maximal running speed was identified for each subject [n = 8 males, 25 (SD 4.6) years; 80 (8.9) kg; 1.79 (0.06) m] as the highest speed that could be sustained for about 20 s on a treadmill. During testing, light-weight accelerometers were securely mounted to the surface of the distal antero-medial aspect of the leg and frontal aspect of the forehead. Subjects completed running conditions of 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100% of their maximal speeds with each condition lasting about 20 s. Stride length, stride frequency, leg and head peak impact acceleration were recorded from the acceleration profiles. Shock attenuation was analyzed by extracting specific sections of the acceleration profiles and calculating the ratio of head to leg power spectral densities across the 10-20 Hz frequency range. Both stride length and stride frequency increased across speeds (P < 0.05) and were correlated with running speed (stride length r = 0.92, stride frequency r = 0.89). Shock attenuation increased about 20% per m x s(-1) across speeds (P< 0.05), which was similar to the 17% increase in stride length per m x s(-1). Additionally, shock attenuation was correlated with stride length (r = 0.71) but only moderately correlated with stride frequency (r = 0.40) across speeds. It was concluded that shock attenuation increased linearly with running speed and running kinematic changes were characterized primarily by stride length changes. Furthermore, the change in shock attenuation was due to increased leg not head peak impact acceleration across running speeds.

Acceleration↗

PubMed2003

The metabolic transition speed between backward walking and running.

Although the metabolic transition speed for forward exercise has already been determined, the walk-run transition speed for backward exercise has not been investigated before. The aim of this study was to determine the speed at which it becomes metabolically more efficient to run backwards than to walk backwards. Eighteen healthy volunteers, who successfully completed three backward exercise practice sessions, participated in the study. All subjects randomly performed two exercise tests: backward walking and backward running. Both protocols started at a treadmill speed of 5 km(.)h(-1). Every minute the speed was increased by 0.5 km(.)h(-1) until 8 km(.)h(-1) was reached. Cardiorespiratory variables were continuously measured and blood lactate concentration [La] was determined every 2 min, using the Accusport lactate analyser. At each work load subjects rated their perceived exertion (RPE), using the Borg scale. There were no statistically significant differences in oxygen consumption, minute ventilation and heart rate between 6 and 7 km(.)h(-1), for backward walking and backward running ( P>0.05). There was no statistically significant difference in blood [La] between walking and running at 7.5 km(.)h(-1) ( P>0.05). According to the RPE values, subjects rated running at speeds less than 6 km(.)h(-1) more difficult than walking at similar speeds. We conclude that the metabolic transition speed between backward walking and running is between 6 and 7 km(.)h(-1), which is lower than the metabolic transition speed for forward locomotion (7.2-7.9 km(.)h(-1)).

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Metabolic response during intermittent graded sprint running in moderate hypobaric hypoxia in competitive middle-distance runners.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the metabolic response and running performance during intermittent graded sprint running were affected by moderate hypobaric hypoxia (H; 2,500 m above sea level) in competitive middle-distance runners. Nine male runners performed intermittent graded sprint running until exhaustion, to evaluate the metabolic response and running performance in H and normobaric normoxia (N). The test constructed of incremental (25 m min(-1)) 20 s running bouts (4 degrees inclination) interspaced with 100 s recovery periods. Maximal running speed was not different between conditions [453 (7) m min(-1) vs. 458 (4) m min(-1) in N vs. H]. V(O2) at each speed was lower in H than N (ANOVA; P < 0.05). Although, oxygen deficit (D(O2)) at each speed was not different between N and H (ANOVA; P = 0.1), total accumulated D(O2) in all bouts was significantly higher in H than N [165 (10) ml kg(-1) in N and 173 (10) ml kg(-1) in H]. The ratio of D(O2).V(O2)(-1) was similar in all bouts, but higher in H than N. These results suggest that intermittent graded sprint running performance is not affected by moderate hypobaria despite a reduction in the energy supplied by aerobic metabolism due to a compensatory increase in the energy supplied by the anaerobic metabolism in competitive middle-distance runners.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Running economy of elite surf iron men and male runners, on soft dry beach sand and grass.

The primary aim of this study was to measure the energetics of six elite surf iron men (who participate in regular sand running training), performing steady-state running trials on grass in shoes at 8, 11 and 14 km x h(-1), and on sand bare foot and in shoes, at both 8 and 11 km x h(-1). The net total energy cost (EC, J x kg(-1) x m(-1)) was determined from the net steady-state oxygen consumption and respiratory exchange ratio (net aerobic EC) plus net lactate accumulation (net anaerobic EC). For the sand barefoot and sand in shoes running trials at 8 and 11 km x h(-1), net aerobic EC and total net EC (but not anaerobic EC) were significantly greater (P < 0.001) than the grass running trial values. No differences (P > 0.05) existed between the sand barefoot and sand in shoes trials. These measures were compared with data obtained from eight well-trained male recreational runners who performed the same protocol in a previous study, but who were not accustomed to running on sand. Comparisons of net aerobic EC between the two groups for the surface conditions were not significantly different (P > 0.05). For net anaerobic EC, the iron man values were significantly less (P < 0.02) than the recreational runner values. For net total EC, the iron man values were less than the recreational runner values, but the differences were only significant when both groups ran on sand barefoot (P < 0.03: on grass P = 0.158; on sand in shoes P = 0.103). The lower lactate accumulation values recorded for the iron men on both grass and sand may indicate that running on sand potentially reduces metabolic fatigue when running on firm or soft surfaces.

Adult↗

PubMed1986

Increase of circulating beta-endorphin-like immunoreactivity correlates with the change in feeling of pleasantness after running.

Twenty-one male regular long distance runners participated in two 10 km runs one week apart. Their beta-endorphin-like immunoreactivity (beta-EIR) was assayed in plasma before and immediately after running. Mood was monitored by an adjective check list (Eigenschaftswörterliste, EWL) pre- and post-run. beta-EIR was significantly elevated post-run. Self-reliance and good mood scored higher after running. Both mood elevation and plasma beta-EIR increase showed a considerable individual variability but there was a significant correlation in the mean values of the two runs between individual beta-EIR increases (delta beta-EIR) and the changes of ratings in feeling of pleasantness (delta FP). High delta beta-EIR corresponded to positive mood change post-run.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Respiratory responses to running and walking at the same metabolic rate.

The ventilatory responses of ten subjects were evaluated during walking and running on a motor driven treadmill. The treadmill grade was adjusted so that the oxygen uptake was the same walking as running at 0% grade. Ventilation (gasometer) and PETCO2 (infrared CO2 analyzer) were monitored breath-by-breath. It was found that running, compared to uphill walking, significantly increased ventilation by an average of 7.80 1 X min-1 BTPS. Respiratory frequency increased by approximately 27% while tidal volume was reduced by an average of 7.2%. The R value of running was 0.88, significantly greater than the 0.81 calculated for uphill walking. Walking resulted in a mean PETCO2 of 46.9 +/- 0.8 Torr, while running significantly reduced the PETCO2 by 4.3 +/- 0.4 Torr. The time components of the breathing cycle were also different for walking and running. These results suggest that by changing gait, at a constant metabolic cost, a dissociation VCO2 and VO2 may occur. These results also suggest a variation in the control of respiration when comparing walking and running.

Humans↗

PubMed2005

Automated home cage observations as a tool to measure the effects of wheel running on cage floor locomotion.

This paper introduces automated observations in a modular home cage system as a tool to measure the effects of wheel running on the time distribution and daily organization of cage floor locomotor activity in female C57BL/6 mice. Mice (n = 16) were placed in the home cage system for 6 consecutive days. Fifty percent of the subjects had free access to a running wheel that was integrated in the home cage. Overall activity levels in terms of duration of movement were increased by wheel running, while time spent inside a sheltering box was decreased. Wheel running affected the hourly pattern of movement during the animals' active period of the day. Mice without a running wheel, in contrast to mice with a running wheel, showed a clear differentiation between novelty-induced and baseline levels of locomotion as reflected by a decrease after the first day of introduction to the home cage. The results are discussed in the light of the use of running wheels as a tool to measure general activity and as an object for environmental enrichment. Furthermore, the possibilities of using automated home cage observations for e.g. behavioural phenotyping are discussed.

Activity Cycles↗

PubMed2006

Averaged EMG profiles in jogging and running at different speeds.

EMGs were collected from 14 muscles with surface electrodes in 10 subjects walking 1.25-2.25 ms(-1) and running 1.25-4.5 ms(-1). The EMGs were rectified, interpolated in 100% of the stride, and averaged over all subjects to give an average profile. In running, these profiles could be decomposed into 10 basic patterns, 8 of which represented only a single burst. Muscles could be divided into a quadriceps, hamstrings, calf and gluteal group, the profiles of which were composed of the same basic patterns. The amplitude of some bursts was constant, but other ones varied with running speed. This speed dependency was generally different between muscles of the same group. Many muscles show a similar profile in running as in walking. The most notable exception is the calf group, which shows activation in early stance (86-125%), together with quadriceps, instead of in late stance (26-55%) as in walking. This is also visible in low-speed running, 'jogging', where stance extends to 46% or 57%, instead of 30-37% as in normal running. Jogging shows some additional differences with normal running, related to this prolonged stance phase.

Acceleration↗

PubMed2006

Manipulating high-intensity interval training: effects on VO2max, the lactate threshold and 3000 m running performance in moderately trained males.

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of two high-intensity interval training (HIT) programmes on maximal oxygen uptake (.VO(2max)), the lactate threshold (LT) and 3000 m running performance in moderately trained male runners. .VO(2max), the running speed associated with .VO(2max) (V.VO(2max)), the time for which V.VO(2max) can be maintained (T(max)), the running speed at LT (v(LT)) and 3000 m running time (3000 mTT) were determined before and following three different training programmes performed for 10 weeks. Following the pre-test, 17 moderately trained male runners (V O(2max)=51.6+/-2.7ml kg(-1)min(-1)) were divided into training groups based on their 3000 mTT (Group 1, G(1), N=6, 8 x 60% of T(max) at V.VO(2max), 1:1 work:recovery ratio; Group 2, G(2), N=6, 12 x 30s at 130% V.VO(2max), 4.5 min recovery; control group, G(CON), N=5, 60 min at 75% V.VO(2max)). G(1) and G(2) performed two HIT sessions and two 60 min recovery run sessions (75% V.VO(2max)) each week. Control subjects performed four 60 min recovery run sessions (75% V.VO(2max)) each week. In G(1), significant improvements (p<0.05) following HIT were found in .VO(2max) (+9.1%), V.VO(2max) (+6.4%), T(max) (5%), v(LT) (+11.7%) and 3000 mTT (-7.3%). In G(2), significant improvements (p<0.05) following HIT were found in .VO(2max) (+6.2%), V.VO(2max)(+7.8%), T(max) (+32%) and 3000 mTT (-3.4%), but not in v(LT) (+4.7%; p=0.07). No significant changes in these variables were found in G(CON). The present study has shown that 3000 m running performance, .VO(2max), V.VO(2max), T(max) and v(LT) can be significantly enhanced using different HIT programmes in moderately trained runners, but that changes in performance and physiological variables may be more profound using prolonged HIT at intensities of V.VO(2max) with interval durations of 60% T(max).

Adult↗