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PubMed2001

Carbohydrate and diabetes: is the source or the amount of more importance?

There have been two approaches to examining the effects of carbohydrate on postprandial glycemia: 1) studies designed to determine the glycemic response of foods containing carbohydrate, regardless of the source, i.e., starch, sugar, or fiber (glycemic index [GI] of carbohydrates), and 2) studies comparing the glycemic response to equivalent amounts of starches or sugars. A number of food factors determine the glycemic response to carbohydrates: food form, digestibility, cooking, sugars, type of starch, presence of antinutrients, and second meal or lente effect. In people with diabetes, the severity of glucose intolerance and premeal glucose concentrations also influence the glycemic response. The GI attempts to classify individual foods (50-g portions) by the extent to which they raise blood glucose levels compared with a standard (reference carbohydrate), initially glucose and in later studies bread. Acute glycemic responses differ, however, when meals containing low GI foods are compared to meals containing high GI foods long term (measured by fructosamine or hemoglobin A1c), the outcomes are mixed. If there is an effect from the GI of foods on glycemia, it is modest at best. In other studies, when sucrose is substituted for a variety of starches--in meals or snacks and both acutely and for up to 6 weeks--the glycemic response is similar if the total amount of carbohydrate is similar. Therefore, the recommendation for persons with diabetes in regard to the glycemic effect of carbohydrates is that the total amount of carbohydrate in meals or snacks is more important than the source or type and is the first priority in the planning of meals or snacks. This has led to the implementation of carbohydrate counting, in which foods are listed as carbohydrate choices based on the amount and not the source of the carbohydrate.

Diabetes Mellitus↗

PubMed1990

Associations between salivary levels of mutans streptococci, lactobacilli, yeasts and black-pigmented Bacteroides spp. and dental variables in elderly dental patients.

Multivariate step-wise regression analyses demonstrated that in a population of 146 elderly dental patients (mean age 69.8 yr) the salivary level of mutans streptococci was unrelated to the root DFS score, unlike the levels of lactobacilli and yeasts. Mutans streptococci were related to the wearing of partial dentures and the number of snacks eaten per day, while salivary lactobacillus levels were also related to the number of snacks eaten per day and to denture wearing, and negatively related to saliva buffering. Salivary yeast levels were also related to the wearing of partial dentures and the number of snacks eaten per day, and negatively related to salivary neuraminidase activity. The R2 values ranged from 0.21 to 0.28. Salivary level of black-pigmented Bacteroides spp. were related to maximum CPITN score, mean bleeding index and salivary trypsin-like activity (R2 was 0.08).

Aged↗

PubMed1988

Plasma amino acids and insulin levels in obesity: response to carbohydrate intake and tryptophan supplements.

We assessed the plasma amino acids, glucose, and insulin responses of obese and lean control subjects to midafternoon carbohydrate snacks. After a standard 400 kcal lunch, eight lean and nine obese subjects received, at 2PM, a 30 g sucrose snack; blood samples were obtained at hourly intervals until 6 PM. Each subject participated in four similar studies in which the carbohydrate snack was consumed alone or with 250, 500, or 1,000 mg of L-tryptophan (Trp), offered as a capsule. The obese group exhibited elevated plasma levels of the branched-chain amino acids, phenylalanine and tyrosine, and the levels of these amino acids declined much less in response to carbohydrate intake than in lean controls. As a consequence, the plasma ratio of Trp:large neutral amino acids (Trp/LNAA ratio), which normally rises after carbohydrate consumption, showed virtually no change in the obese group. The plasma Trp/LNAA response of this group did not reach control values even when carbohydrate intake was increased to 50 or 75 g. Peak plasma Trp concentrations and Trp/LNAA ratios after 250, 500, and 1,000 mg Trp doses were also significantly lower in the obese. Since brain Trp uptake is strongly correlated with the plasma Trp/LNAA ratio, which in turn determines the rate of brain serotonin synthesis, the blunted Trp/LNAA response to carbohydrate intake in the obese could contribute to alterations in the serotonin-mediated regulation of food intake.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Effects of dexfenfluramine on the feeding behavior of rats foraging in the cold for palatable bait.

An alimentary/thermic conflict of motivation was used to explore the effects of very low doses of dexfenfluramine (dFF), an anorectic serotoninergic agonist, on the parameters of food motivation, drive and incentive (or palatability). Six rats trained to feed 2 hr/day, were given the possibility to feed on chow in a shelter (25 degrees C), and to get a snack of shortcake, a highly palatable bait, from a feeder placed 16 m away in a very cold environment (-15 degrees C). dFF at 0.6 or 1.25 mg/kg decreased neither the chow intake in the shelter, nor the mean duration of the snacks in the cold, which is the parameter believed to be the best indicator of incentive. In contrast, dFF reduced the number of trips to the bait in the cold as well as the total mass of palatable bait ingested and the mean amount ingested by snack. Such an effect was no longer observed after a food restriction had reduced the body weight of the rats to 90% of its initial value. It is concluded that, even at doses too small to reduce the consumption of basic food, dFF decreases the drive to get palatable food.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

A comparison between liking ratings obtained under laboratory and field conditions: the role of choice.

The relationship between laboratory and field data was investigated for nine different groupings of 5-7 foods: two main dish groupings, four snack item groupings, and three specific meals. Liking ratings on the nine-point hedonic scale were obtained in an US Army field study and for the same foods in a sensory laboratory. In a subsequent choice simulation laboratory with two food groupings, we offered subjects some choice (three out of six or seven items) among to which foods they would evaluate. The results showed high correlations between lab and field ratings for the snack food groupings (0.58-0.94), but low correlations for the main dishes (-0.05-0.26) and meal components (-0.07-0.41). Correlations between mean field and mean laboratory data improved when laboratory subjects were offered a choice of foods. The ability of laboratory ratings to predict acceptability of foods consumed under realistic conditions appears to depend on the type of food, and may be better for foods used as snacks than for main dishes. Laboratory conditions in which subjects had some degree of choice among foods improved the relationship with the field data. It is important to pay more attention to experimental variables that may improve the validity of sensory laboratory tests.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Effect of television advertisements for foods on food consumption in children.

The impact of television (TV) advertisements (commercials) on children's eating behaviour and health is of critical interest. In a preliminary study we examined lean, over weight and obese children's ability to recognise eight food and eight non-food related adverts in a repeated measures design. Their consumption of sweet and savoury, high and low fat snack foods were measured after both sessions. Whilst there was no significant difference in the number of non-food adverts recognised between the lean and obese children, the obese children did recognise significantly more of the food adverts. The ability to recognise the food adverts significantly correlated with the amount of food eaten after exposure to them. The overall snack food intake of the obese and overweight children was significantly higher than the lean children in the control (non-food advert) condition. The consumption of all the food offered increased post food advert with the exception of the low-fat savoury snack. These data demonstrate obese children's heightened alertness to food related cues. Moreover, exposure to such cues induce increased food intake in all children. As suggested the relationship between TV viewing and childhood obesity appears not merely a matter of excessive sedentary activity. Exposure to food adverts promotes consumption.

Advertising↗

PubMed2004

Energy intake associated with television viewing in adolescents, a cross sectional study.

The present study examines the energy intake resulting from eating snacks and drinking energy containing drinks while watching television. 2546 first and fourth year students in a random sample of 15 secondary schools in Flanders, Belgium received quantifiable, closed survey questions about average weekly TV viewing volume and about eating five types of snacks and drinking two types of soft drinks. On an average, the respondents watched 22:27 h of television per week (SD = 11:53). Only 3.5% of the adolescents never eat snacks or drink soft drinks while they watch TV. Estimated daily energy intake accompanying TV viewing amounts to 19% of the Belgian average energy allowance (AEA) in boys and between 12 and 14% of AEA in girls. On an average 1 h of watching television equals the consumption of 653 kJ.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Relationship of mother and child food purchases as a function of price: a pilot study.

To our knowledge, there are no data on parental influences on child purchasing behavior of healthy or unhealthy foods. Mothers and children in ten families were given 5.00 US dollars to purchase portions of preferred fruits/vegetables and high energy-dense snack foods for each of ten trials of price manipulations. For five of the trials the price of the fruit/vegetable increased in price from 0.50 US dollars to 2.50 US dollars (in 0.50 US dollar increments), while the price of the energy-dense snack food remained constant at 1.00 US dollar. For the remaining five trials, the commodity that previously rose in price remained constant at 1.00 US dollars and the other commodity varied from 0.50 US dollars to 2.50 US dollars. Same-price elasticity was shown for both the child and parent purchases, and parent purchases were significantly related to child purchases of both healthy (regression estimate = 0.46, p < 0.001) and unhealthy (regression estimate = 0.12, p = 0.036) foods. Children's purchases of unhealthy snack food items were positively related to family socioeconomic status, and negatively related to child age. These results indicate that parental food choice and purchasing behaviors may play a role in the development of children's purchasing of both healthy and unhealthy foods.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Validation of a questionnaire measure of the relative reinforcing value of food.

The traditional method of measuring the relative reinforcing value of food provides subjects a choice of food and non-food alternatives, and defines the relative reinforcing value of food based on the allocation of responses for the two alternatives as the schedules of reinforcement for the alternatives change. Greater allocation of responses for one alternative versus another reflects the relative reinforcing value of the alternatives. This method was designed for laboratory use, but methods are needed to extend measurement of reinforcing value to applied research environments. Two experiments were conducted to assess the validity of a questionnaire measure of the relative reinforcing value of food in normal weight university samples. Study 1 (n=39) assessed the relationship between the relative reinforcing value of snack food versus fruits and vegetables (condition 1) or enjoyable sedentary behaviors (condition 2) as measured by the questionnaire and standardized computerized concurrent schedules criterion. A significant relationship (Pearson r=0.49, p<0.01; Guttman's MU2=0.69) across the two conditions between the two methods of measuring food reinforcement was observed. Experiment 2 (n=10) utilized a within-subject counterbalanced design to manipulate food deprivation and hunger levels to determine if food deprivation increased the reinforcing value of snack food as measured by the questionnaire to provide an index of validity of the questionnaire. Results showed that food deprivation increased the relative reinforcing value of snack food. Results from both studies suggest that the questionnaire has good validity, and may represent an efficient and reliable method of assessing the relative reinforcing value of food.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Anatomy of a binge: food environment and characteristics of nonpurge binge episodes.

This secondary analysis prospectively examined nonpurge binge eating patterns in a naturalistic setting in 48 nonpurge binge eating women. Binge eating episodes were analyzed from 14-day food diaries to describe the binge and to determine how types of foods consumed and setting variables affected nonpurge binge eating women. Findings indicated that binge episodes occurred mostly during the lunch (27.1%) and dinner hours (45.8%) and on weekends (62.5%). Half of the binge episodes occurred in restaurants. The most common items consumed during binges were breads/pasta (64.6%), sweets (56.2%), high fat meat items (45.3%), and salty snacks (39.6%) while the predominant foods consumed during these binges were high fat meat items (29.2%), sweets (21.0%), and salty snacks (18.8%). Those who predominantly binged on sweets had significantly more binge days [t(46)=-2.8, p<.01]. Women who predominantly binged on fried meat had significantly higher body mass index (BMI) [t(46)=-2.8, p<.01]. A higher BMI was also associated with binging during meals rather than binging during snacks [t(46)=2.4, p<.05]. The results suggest that nonpurge binge eating patterns are more problematic during meal times.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Children's food consumption patterns have changed over two decades (1973-1994): The Bogalusa heart study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate types of foods and amounts consumed by 10-year-old children during the period from 1973 to 1994. DESIGN: One 24-hour dietary recall was collected on each child who participated in one of seven separate cross-sectional surveys of 10-year-olds.Subjects/Setting Dietary intake data was collected on 1,584 10-year-old children (65% Euro American, 35% African American), in Bogalusa, LA, from 1973 to 1994 using SAS 8.0 (1999, SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC). Statistical analyses performed Data were analyzed to calculate descriptive statistics. Pearson's chi(2) test was used for testing equality of percentage of each food group consumed across the seven surveys. Cochran-Armitage trend test and general linear models were used to test for trends, adjusting for total energy intake, ethnicity, and sex. RESULTS: The percentage of children consuming, and the mean gram amount consumed, significantly decreased for fats/oils (P<.0001), desserts (P<.0001), candy (P<.0001), eggs (P<.001), and milk (P<.0001). In contrast, the percentage of children consuming, and the mean gram amount consumed, significantly increased for fruits/fruit juices (P<.01), mixed meats (P<.01), poultry (P<.0001), and cheese (P<.0001). Despite a significant decrease in the percentage of children consuming vegetables (P<.01) and beef (P<.01), the mean gram amount consumed did not change. The percentage of children consuming breads/grains, pork, and snacks did not change, but the mean gram amount of salty snacks (P<.001) significantly increased and the amount of breads/grains (P<.01) and pork (P<.01) significantly decreased. The percentage of children consuming sweetened beverages (P<.01) and condiments (P<.001) decreased while the mean gram amount consumed increased (P<.05) and (P<.0001). The mean gram amount of lunch and dinner consumed increased (P<.0001) but snacks decreased (P<.0001), resulting in no change in total gram amount consumed in a 24-hour period. CONCLUSIONS: Trends in food consumption patterns of children should be considered in the design and implementation of population-based behavior strategies for the promotion of health and prevention of chronic diseases beginning in childhood.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2006

Overweight adolescent African-American mothers gain weight in spite of intentions to lose weight.

OBJECTIVE: This study sought to determine how dietary patterns, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and intention to lose weight were associated with body size among adolescent African-American mothers 1 year after delivery and with changes in body size over the next year. DESIGN: Cross-sectional and longitudinal self-reported measures were collected 1 year after delivery. Weight and height were collected 1 and 2 years after delivery. SUBJECTS: The subjects were 118 low-income, African-American adolescent mothers recruited after the birth of their first child. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Multivariate analysis of covariance and multivariate regression analysis were conducted to examine predictors of body size 1 year after delivery and changes in body size over the next year. Analyses were adjusted for maternal age, education, breastfeeding history, and intervention. RESULTS: One year after delivery, 33.0% of mothers were overweight (body mass index [BMI] > or =95th percentile) and 23.7% were at risk for overweight (BMI > or =85th and <95th percentile). Mothers consumed a daily average of 2,527 kcal and 4.1 high-fat snacks. A total of 11% of normal-weight mothers, 22% of mothers at risk for overweight, and 44% of overweight mothers reported intention to lose weight, chi(2)=10.8, P<.01. Average maternal BMI z score increased 0.13 (3.9 kg) between 1 and 2 years after delivery, P<.01. Dietary patterns, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and intention to lose weight were not related to body size or increase in body size. CONCLUSIONS: One year after delivery, overweight among adolescent mothers was common and increased over time. Although nearly half of overweight mothers reported an intention to lose weight, their weight gain did not differ from that of other mothers, suggesting that they lack effective weight-loss behaviors, and may be good candidates for intervention. African-American adolescent mothers have high rates of overweight and snack consumption and may benefit from strategies to identify nutritious, palatable, affordable, and accessible alternatives to high-fat snack food.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Acceptability of lower glycemic index foods in the diabetes camp setting.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the acceptability of lower glycemic index (GI) foods served at diabetes camp. DESIGN: Crossover design of standard and lower GI menus. SETTING: Three consecutive 5-day diabetes camp sessions. PARTICIPANTS: 140 youth, age 7-16, with type 1 or 2 diabetes. INTERVENTION: A standard camp cycle menu was reformulated to include 2 1/2 days of standard foods and 2 1/2 days of lower GI foods. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Youth provided satisfaction ratings after meals and snacks using measures designed for this study. Observations of food consumption were conducted on a random sample of youth for each meal. ANALYSIS: Descriptive analyses and t-tests were conducted to assess differences in satisfaction with and consumption of standard and lower GI foods. RESULTS: Lower GI foods served at dinner and for snacks received satisfaction ratings equal to standard foods (dinner: 3.68 lower GI versus 3.79 standard, P = .30; snacks: 3.74 lower GI versus 3.79 standard, P = .60). Lower GI foods served at breakfast and lunch received lower, though very acceptable, ratings (breakfast: 3.76 lower GI versus 4.04 standard, P < .01; lunch: 3.64 lower GI versus 3.88 standard, P = .01). Consumption of all meals was acceptable. No differences occurred in the frequency of high or low blood sugars between standard and lower GI days. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Higher quality carbohydrates may be provided to youth in institutional settings while maintaining sufficient levels of acceptability; specific findings are instructive for designing efforts to increase their consumption.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Assessing correspondence following acquisition of an exchange-based communication system.

Two students with developmental disabilities were taught to request six snack items. Requesting involved giving a graphic symbol to the trainer in exchange for the matching snack item. Following acquisition, we assessed the correspondence between requests and subsequent item selections by requiring the student to select the previously requested snack item from an array containing all six items. The effects of acquisition training were evaluated in a multiple-probe across subjects design. Acquisition was achieved in from 9 to 29 trials per item. Following acquisition, Jason showed a high level of correspondence between requesting and selecting, but Ryan required additional training to achieve correspondence. These data support the use of exchange-based communication systems, but suggest that some students may require explicit correspondence training.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Effect of yogurt on a urinary marker of bone resorption in postmenopausal women.

Adding three servings of yogurt to the daily diet of older women with habitually low calcium intakes resulted in a significant reduction in urinary excretion of N-telepeptide, a marker for bone resorption. Results were compared to the effects of three servings of a nutrition-poor snack and differences were apparent 7-10 days of starting the diet change. The satiety effect of the snacks resulted in a decrease in intake of other foods. The added nutrients of the yogurt improved overall diet quality substantially, while diet quality declined with the nutrient-poor snack. The results show that diets low in dairy intake are often marginal for several nutrients and that, so far as calcium is concerned, bone makes up for what the diet lacks. Moreover, bone resorption responds rapidly and sensitively to improvements in calcium intake that are readily achievable by an older female population.

Bone Resorption↗

PubMed1998

Olestra: a new food additive.

In 1987, Procter and Gamble Company (Cincinnati, Ohio) petitioned the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to amend the food additive regulations to allow sucrose esterified with fatty acids (olestra) to be used as a replacement for conventional fats. The petitioner later restricted its request for use in savory snacks. FDA considered evidence submitted by the petitioner, the opinions of experts, proceedings from the FDA Food Advisory Committee, and public discussion and concluded on January 25, 1996, that olestra was safe for use in savory snacks (eg, salty snacks such as potato chips, corn chips). Olestra is not toxic, carcinogenic, genotoxic, or teratogenic and is neither absorbed nor metabolized by the body, but may be associated with gastrointestinal tract symptoms such as cramping or loose stools. In addition, olestra affects the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins but does not affect the absorption of water-soluble nutrients. The petitioner's studies concluded that when olestra was consumed with foods containing vitamins A, D, E, or K, the fat substitute could have an effect on the absorption of these nutrients. Therefore, FDA is requiring that fat-soluble vitamins lost through absorption be added back to olestra as follows: 170 IU vitamin A per gram olestra, 12 IU vitamin D per gram olestra, 2.8 IU vitamin E per gram olestra, and 8 micrograms vitamin K per gram olestra. As part of the conditions of approval FDA is requiring that the food labels of products containing olestra disclose the vitamin compensation and the potential gastrointestinal effects. FDA is also requiring that further studies examining consumption patterns and the effects of olestra on human beings be conducted.

Digestive System↗

PubMed1988

Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory.

Six adult male research volunteers, in two groups of three subjects each, lived in a residential laboratory for 13 days. All contact with the experimenter was through a networked computer system and subjects' behaviors, including food intake, were continuously recorded. During the first part of the day, subjects remained in continuously recorded. During the first part of the day, subjects remained in their private rooms doing planned work activities, and during the remainder of the day, they were allowed to socialize. Two cigarettes containing active marijuana (2.3% delta 9 THC) or placebo were smoked during both the private work period and the period of access to social activities. Smoked active marijuana significantly increased total daily caloric intake by 40%. Increased food intake was evident during both private and social periods. The increase in caloric intake was due to an increased consumption of snack foods as a consequence of an increase in the number of snacking occasions. There was no significant change in caloric consumption during meals. The principal increase within the category of snack foods was in the intake of sweet solid items, e.g., candy bars, compared to sweet fluid, e.g., soda, or savory solid items, e.g., potato chips. Increases in body weight during periods of active marijuana smoking were greater than predicted by caloric intake alone.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Fiber intake and food selection of the elderly in Taiwan.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed fiber intakes and determined the major food categories that contribute to dietary fiber intakes in the Taiwanese elderly. We also examined the association between fiber intake and health status. METHODS: Macronutrients, dietary, and crude fiber intakes of 173 elderly men (76.4 +/- 0.4 y) and 140 women (76.6 +/- 0.4 y) were assessed with 24-h recall. Health status was assessed by the checklist questionnaire. Food was categorized as grain, vegetable, fruit, soy, other legumes, snack, seaweed, nuts, and mushroom groups. RESULTS: The mean dietary and crude fiber intakes by our older population were 8.79 +/- 0.24 g/d and 3.30 +/- 0.08 g/d, respectively. Significant associations were found between low fiber intakes and swallowing ability in the elderly population. Vegetables, fruits, and grains contributed most (>85%) to dietary fiber intakes for men and women. However, women consumed a greater proportion of fiber from vegetables and a lesser proportion from grain and snacks than did men. CONCLUSIONS: Elderly subjects had remarkably low dietary fiber intakes (g and g/Mcal). Swallowing and chewing ability determined the amount of fiber consumed. Vegetable contributed more than half of dietary fiber intake. The selection of food groups exerted sex-dependent pattern in grains, vegetables, and snacks.

Aged↗