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PubMed1957

Child development; problems of discipline, authority and rebellion.

It is only through the love and approval of the significant adults in a child's life that he is able to give up his primitive behavior for that which meets the demands of social living. Conflict over authority is only one of many conflicts. There are conflicts which arise inherently in a child's development. The task of the parents in the education of the child in our society is to enable the child to tolerate a certain amount of frustration and also a necessary degree of control of impulses so that he can live in a group and in conformity with the required standards. Increased rebelliousness and defiance are normally characteristic of certain periods of development in healthy children. These are when concerted discipline begins, and in early adolescence. But other events also may reactivate or stimulate attitudes of defiance and rebellion. Even in his rebellion, a child needs and expects his parents to stand for order, as well as for love. He expects that the parent will save him from the consequences of his own destructive impulses, which he as yet may not have the strength to withstand.Deep-seated or submerged factors in the parents may play a significant role in the discipline to which they subject their children. True permissiveness means allowing a child to develop according to his own rate of speed and his own potentialities as a unique individual. It includes refusing the child any type of behavior that will bring danger to him or to others.A parent who uses harsh and rigid forms of discipline may force a child into submission, rather than acceptance and understanding. This produces only surface conformity which hides insecurity and violent underlying destructiveness.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1978

Poisoning, burns, and other accidents experienced by a thousand Dunedin three year olds: a report from the Dunedin multidisciplinary child development study.

Poisoning, burns, and other accidents experienced by 1037 Dunedin children during their first three years of life are described. 7.8% of the children ingested poison, 4.9% were burned, and 21.4% experienced other accidents for which medical advice was sought. The children who had been poisoned were of significantly lower intelligence than the remainder although those who had had other accidents did not differ significantly in this respect. The mothers of children poisoned or who had had accidents were not significantly different from the remainder in terms of general mental ability or training in child development.

Accidents↗
PubMed2002

Are impaired childhood motor skills a risk factor for adolescent anxiety? Results from the 1958 U.K. birth cohort and the National Child Development Study.

OBJECTIVE: Neurodevelopmental impairments have been associated with early-onset schizophrenia, early-onset bipolar disorder, and childhood-onset affective disorder. The authors investigated whether delayed childhood motor skills predicted persistent anxiety in adolescence among 6,850 subjects from a national 1958 U.K. birth cohort. METHOD: This historic cohort study used data from the National Child Development Study that was collected when its subjects were 7, 11, and 16 years old. RESULTS: Boys with poor motor skills had more than threefold the odds of maternally rated anxiety at the ages of 11 and 16, but no effect was observed for girls. CONCLUSIONS: Childhood motor impairment was strongly associated with persistent anxiety among male, but not among female, adolescents. The effect modification by sex was greater than expected, as was the effect size for boys. Both findings warrant replication and further examination.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Social determinants of initiation, duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding at the population level: the results of the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Quebec (ELDEQ 1998-2002).

BACKGROUND: According to Canadian public health recommendations, newborns should be fed exclusively with breast milk during their first 4 to 6 months of life. The aim of this paper is to identify the main social determinants of initiation, duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding from birth to 4 months, at the population level. The results will help the development of public health interventions aimed at improving the prevalence of exclusive breastfeeding for at least the first 4 to 6 months of babies' life. METHODS: The analyses were performed with the data of the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Quebec (ELDEQ 1998-2002). The study follows a representative sample (n = 2,223) of the children born in 1998 in the province of Quebec, in Canada. The relations between breastfeeding (all and exclusive) and mothers' education level, annual family income, family type, parents' working situation and mothers' age group have been evaluated by crude and adjusted odds ratios. Multivariate analyses were used to identify the most influential factors. RESULTS: In 1998, nearly three quarters (72%) of the Quebec newborns were breastfed at birth. When they reached 4 months, only 6% of the Quebec children were exclusively breastfed, thus following public health recommendations. Mothers' education level remains the strongest factor of influence on breastfeeding from birth to 3 months, and its impact increases with baby's age. At 4 months, it is also the most important factor for all breastfeeding, but mothers' age is more important for exclusive breastfeeding. When all the studied factors are considered equal for all children, being breastfed in accordance with public health recommendations, which refers to exclusive breasfeeding for at least 4 months, is mainly influenced by mothers' age, followed by mothers' education level. Family income, family type and parents' working situation do not influence exclusive breastfeeding at 4 months. It should be noted that when considering all breastfed children, if mothers' age and education level are equal, annual family income shows a negative relationship with breastfeeding at any of the studied ages. This negative relationship is also observed at 2 months for exclusive breastfeeding (dollar 40,000-dollar 59,999). CONCLUSION: From a public health perspective, it is important that newborns be breastfed at birth and exclusively breastfed during their first 4 to 6 months of life. The analysis indicates that once the decision to breastfeed is made, different social factors influence the duration of breastfeeding and its exclusivity. Public policy targets are necessary to evaluate whether the situation is improving from one year to another and whether disparities are increasing or decreasing for newborns accumulating the impact of material and social deprivation early in life.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Iron status of children aged 9-36 months in an urban slum Integrated Child Development Services project in Delhi.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the magnitude/severity and possible etiology of anemia and iron deficiency among children 9-36 months of age. METHODS: A population-based study on the prevalence, etiology of anemia and iron status in 545 children, 9-36 months of age, was conducted in an urban slum ICDS (Integrated Child Development Services) project in North-East Delhi. Hemoglobin and serum ferritin was estimated and information on socio-economic, demographic, parasitic infection/infestation and dietary intake was collected. RESULTS: Prevalence of anemia (using WHO cut-off values of Hb >11.0 g/dl) among children, 9-36 months of age, was 64%, of these 7.8% had severe anemia (Hb >7.0 g/dl). Using 10.0 g/dl as the Hb cut-off point 44% children less than 18 months of age in the present study population were anemic. On a sub-sample study, 88% children were estimated to be iron deficient, with serum ferritin concentration less than 12 microg/L. The peripheral smear red cell morphology showed 33.9% as microcytic-hypochromic and 37.1% as dimorphic. Dimorphic anemia was 55% in moderate anemia group. The energy and iron intakes were 56% and 45%, respectively of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA). The parasitic infestation/infection was not related to the prevalence or severity of anemia. CONCLUSION: In Delhi, high prevalence of moderate to severe anemia and iron deficiency with vitamins folate and/or B12 among children under 3 years of age in an ICDS block in operation for 20 years is of concern. Dietary origin was the main cause of anemia in this age group.

Anemia, Iron-Deficiency↗
PubMed1997

The European study of assisted reproduction families: a comparison of family functioning and child development between Eastern and Western Europe.

Developments in reproductive technology over the past 20 years have given infertile couples new opportunities to have children. Although assisted reproduction does not appear to lead to negative consequences with respect to parent-child relationships or the socioemotional development of the child, the outcome for children and their parents may well differ according to the social and cultural environment. The aim of the present study was to compare family functioning and the social and emotional development of children in families created as a result of assisted reproductive techniques in Western Europe with assisted reproduction families in an Eastern European country (Bulgaria) where there is a history of specific pronatalist interventions. The findings indicate greater difficulties in parental adjustment and child behavior in assisted conception families in Eastern Europe. In addition, Eastern European parents were more uncertain than Western European parents about whether they would tell the child, and Eastern European parents were much more secretive with respect to telling others. Thus the outcomes of assisted reproduction for family functioning and child development appear to be independent, to some extent at least, on the social context in which these techniques are carried out.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1992

[Visual milestones and child development].

Frequently, the milestones of visual development are the only available parameter of visual functions in newborns and small infants. The subscale eye-hand-coordination of Griffith's Developmental Test and some single items of visuo-motor functions were assessed concerning their first occurrence in healthy AGA term and preterm infants. Term and preterm infants differed constantly, but not significantly, in favour of the term children. No sex differences could be documented. Neurologic optimality score showed significant correlations with development of visual milestones. The Griffiths subscore at 9 and 24 months showed good correlations with later cognitive functions.

Child Development↗
PubMed1997

Effects of prenatal methylmercury exposure from a high fish diet on developmental milestones in the Seychelles Child Development Study.

Mercury is widespread in the environment and exists in several physical and chemical forms. Prenatal exposure to methylmercury disrupts brain development. The most common mode of prenatal methylmercury exposure is maternal fish consumption. Studies of human prenatal exposure in Iraq following maternal ingestion of methylmercury treated grain suggested that maternal hair mercury concentrations above 10 ppm may be related to delayed developmental milestones and neurological abnormalities. This level of exposure can be achieved by frequent consumption of fish. The Seychelles Child Development Study analyzed developmental milestones similar to those determined in Iraq in a large controlled, prospective study of children exposed prenatally to methylmercury when their mothers ate fish. As part of this ongoing study, cohort children were evaluated at 6.5, 19, 29, and 66 months of age. At 19 months care-givers were asked at what age the child walked (n=720 out of 738) and talked (n=680). Prenatal mercury exposure was determined by atomic absorption analysis of maternal hair segments corresponding to hair growth during the pregnancy. The median mercury level in maternal hair was 5.8 ppm with a range of 0.5-26.7 ppm. The mean age (in months) at walking was 10.7 (SD = 1.9) for females and 10.6 (SD = 2.0) for males. The mean age at talking (in months) was 10.5 (SD = 2.6) for females, and 11.0 (SD = 2.9) for males. After adjusting for covariates and statistical outliers, no association was found between the age at which Seychellois children walked or talked and prenatal exposure to mercury. Normal ages at achievement of the developmental milestones walking and talking were found in Seychellois toddlers following prenatal exposure to methylmercury from a maternal fish diet. These results do not support the lowest effect levels in young children following prenatal methylmercury exposure predicted by the dose response analysis of the Iraq data. More detailed studies in older children are needed to determine if there are adverse effects in fish eating populations.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Validation of the measure of processes of care for use when there is no Child Development Centre.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical governance requires measurement of the outcomes of health care. The Measure of Processes of Care (MPOC; King, Rosenbaum & King 1995) is a postal questionnaire developed in Canada to reflect parents' perceptions of the quality of services received. AIM: To examine the usefulness of the MPOC for the evaluation of services for children with disabilities and their families. METHODS: The MPOC was revised minimally for British idiom, taking out explicit references to a 'Centre'. Surveys of parents using child disability services were carried out in three rural and two urban communities, where there are no Child Development Centres, with a total of 495 analysable questionnaires returned. In addition, 32 parents using a home nursing service for children with multiple disabilities completed questionnaires. RESULTS: The rate of return ranged from 49% to 67%. Factor analysis confirmed a five-factor solution but only one factor mapped clearly onto the Canadian structure. Using the revised structure, the surveys provide evidence of the discriminating potential of the MPOC, comparing the perceptions of parents who do or do not have a care coordinator, and comparing recipients of a home nursing service with matched users of general services. CONCLUSIONS: The MPOC can be used as a measure of outcome for child disability services of differing organizational structures.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

The effects of postpartum depression on child development: a meta-analysis.

The adverse, short-term effects of postpartum depression on maternal-infant interaction have been repeatedly documented. Are there long-term sequelae for children whose mothers had experienced postpartum depression? The purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine the magnitude of the effect of postpartum depression on the cognitive and emotional development of children older than the age of 1 year. Nine studies which met the sample criteria were included in this meta-analysis. Results indicated that postpartum depression had a small but significant effect on children's cognitive and emotional development. The r indicator for effect size ranged from .18 to .22 whereas the d indicator ranged from .36 to .45. Implications for future research are addressed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Child development and evolutionary psychology.

Evolutionary developmental psychology involves the expression of evolved, epigenetic programs, as described by the developmental systems approach, over the course of ontogeny. There have been different selection pressures on organisms at different times in ontogeny, and some characteristics of infants and children were selected in evolution to serve an adaptive function at that time in their life history rather than to prepare individuals for later adulthood. Examples of such adaptive functions of immaturity are provided from infancy, play, and cognitive development. Most evolved psychological mechanisms are proposed to be domain specific in nature and have been identified for various aspects of children's cognitive and social development, most notably for the acquisition of language and for theory of mind. Differences in the quality and quantity of parental investment affect children's development and influence their subsequent reproductive and childcare strategies. Some sex differences observed in childhood, particularly as expressed during play, are seen as antecedents and preparations for adult sex differences. Because evolved mechanisms were adaptive to ancestral environments, they are not always adaptive for contemporary people, and this mismatch of evolved mechanisms with modern environments is seen in children's maladjustment to some aspects of formal schooling. We argue that an evolutionary perspective can be valuable for developing a better understanding of human ontogeny in contemporary society and that a developmental perspective is important for a better understanding of evolutionary psychology.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Postnatal depression and child development. A three-year follow-up study.

This study investigates whether three-year-old children whose mothers had been depressed after their birth showed more behaviour disturbance than children of mothers who were not depressed at that time. Ninety-one of 103 mothers who took part in an earlier prospective study of postnatal depression were reinterviewed three years later to determine their present mental state, and to assess their child's behaviour, using Richman's Behavioural Screening Questionnaire. No relationship was found between a prolonged postnatal depression and behaviour disturbance in the child, but children whose mothers had brief postnatal depressive episodes showed more behaviour disturbance than those whose mothers had not been depressed since childbirth.

Child Behavior Disorders↗