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PubMed2004

Effects of exercise on joint sense and balance in elderly men: Tai Chi versus golf.

PURPOSE: Our previous studies showed that experienced Tai Chi practitioners had better joint proprioception and balance control during weight shifting. The objective of the present study was to examine whether experienced golfers had attained similar improvement when compared with the Tai Chi practitioners, as well as healthy elderly subjects and young university students. METHODS: We compared 12 experienced elderly Tai Chi practitioners, with 11 experienced elderly golfers, 12 healthy elderly subjects, and 12 young university students, who were all males, using: 1) passive knee joint repositioning test to assess their joint proprioceptive acuity and 2) limits of stability test to assess their ability to voluntarily weight shift within their base of support. RESULTS: Both Tai Chi practitioners and golfers had better knee joint proprioceptive acuity than did the elderly control subjects (P < 0.05). Of special interest is that their performance was similar to that of the young subjects. In the limits of stability test, Tai Chi practitioners and golfers had faster reaction time, leaned further without losing stability, and showed better control of leaning trajectory than did elderly control subjects (all P < 0.05). The latter two outcome measures were also comparable to those of the young subjects. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that both experienced Tai Chi practitioners and golfers had improved knee joint proprioception and limits of stability, when compared with those of elderly control subjects similar in age, gender (male), and physical activity level. Such improved outcome measures were comparable to those of young male subjects. These findings suggest that experienced Tai Chi practitioners and golfers had improved joint proprioceptive acuity and dynamic standing balance control, despite the known aging effects in these specific sensorimotor functions.

Accidental Falls↗

PubMed2004

Early and progressive sensorimotor anomalies in mice overexpressing wild-type human alpha-synuclein.

Accumulation of alpha-synuclein in brain is a hallmark of synucleinopathies, neurodegenerative diseases that include Parkinson's disease. Mice overexpressing alpha-synuclein under the Thy-1 promoter (ASO) show abnormal accumulation of alpha-synuclein in cortical and subcortical regions of the brain, including the substantia nigra. We examined the motor deficits in ASO mice with a battery of sensorimotor tests that are sensitive to alterations in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. Male wild-type and ASO mice were tested every 2 months for 8 months for motor performance and coordination on a challenging beam, inverted grid, and pole, sensorimotor deficits in an adhesive removal test, spontaneous activity in a cylinder, and gait. Fine motor skills were assessed by the ability to grasp cotton from a bin. ASO mice displayed significant impairments in motor performance and coordination and a reduction in spontaneous activity as early as 2 months of age. Motor performance and coordination impairments became progressively worse with age and sensorimotor deficits appeared at 6 months. Fine motor skills were altered at 4 months and worsened at 8 months. These data indicate that overexpression of alpha-synuclein induced an early and progressive behavioral phenotype that can be detected in multiple tests of sensorimotor function. These behavioral deficits provide a useful way to assess novel drug therapy in genetic models of synucleinopathies.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Safety and efficacy of 4-aminopyridine in humans with spinal cord injury: a long-term, controlled trial.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the effects of the long-term administration of 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) on sensorimotor function in humans with long-standing spinal cord injury (SCI). DESIGN: Randomized, open-label, active-treatment control, dosage-blinded study. SETTING: University-affiliated, tertiary-level care, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center. PATIENTS: Twenty-one healthy men and women outpatients suffering from traumatic SCI (14 tetraplegic, 7 paraplegic) for 2 years or more. INTERVENTIONS: Dosages of an immediate-release formulation of 4-AP were titrated. At 3 months, 16 subjects were receiving 4-AP 30 mg/day (high dose); 5 subjects were receiving 4-AP 6 mg/day (low dose) and served as an active-treatment control group. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Composite motor and sensory scores had statistically significant increases at 3 months. Maximal expiratory pressure, maximal inspiratory pressure, forced vital capacity, and forced expiratory volume in 1 second showed clinically meaningful and/or statistically significant increases among patients receiving 4-AP 30 mg/day. These subjects also had significant decreases in spasticity (modified Ashworth Scale). Serial biochemical profiles and electroencephalographs were unchanged from baseline, and no clinically significant drug toxicity was encountered. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term oral administration of immediate-release 4-AP was associated with improvement in and recovery of sensory and motor function, enhanced pulmonary function, and diminished spasticity in patients with long-standing SCI. 4-Aminopyridine appears to be safe and relatively free from toxicity when administered orally over 3 months. Each patient who received immediate-release 4-AP 30 mg/day showed a response in one or more of the outcome measures.

4-Aminopyridine↗

PubMed2004

Proprioception, kinesthesia, and balance after total knee arthroplasty with cruciate-retaining and posterior stabilized prostheses.

BACKGROUND: The effect of total knee arthroplasty on proprioception, kinesthesia, and postural control remains controversial. It is argued that retaining the posterior cruciate ligament may help to preserve these sensorimotor functions and improve the longevity of the prosthesis and the functional outcome. We performed a prospective, randomized study to assess proprioception, kinesthesia, and balance following total knee arthroplasty with cruciate-retaining and posterior stabilized prostheses. METHODS: Twenty patients scheduled to undergo total knee arthroplasty were randomly assigned to receive either a cruciate-retaining or a posterior stabilized prosthesis. Joint-position sense, the threshold to detect joint motion, and the subject's ability to balance on an unstable platform were assessed prior to and at least six months after the operation. Paired two-tailed t tests (with a level of significance of p < 0.05) were used to assess the effect of the arthroplasty on the preoperative measures for all subjects. Analysis of covariance was performed to identify the effects of prosthetic design. RESULTS: Following total knee arthroplasty, patients detected motion significantly faster and reproduced joint position with less error. The balance index also improved significantly from the preoperative to the postoperative evaluation. The group treated with the posterior stabilized prosthesis more accurately reproduced joint position when the knee was extended from a flexed position. CONCLUSIONS: Total knee arthroplasty results in mild improvements in proprioception, kinesthesia, and balance. These changes may result from the retensioned capsuloligamentous structures and reduced pain and inflammation. Retention of the posterior cruciate ligament does not appear to significantly improve proprioception and balance compared with those functions in patients with a posterior stabilized total knee design.

Aged↗

PubMed1996

Selective damage to sensorimotor perivascular nerves in the mesenteric vessels of diabetic rats.

The perivascular innervation of the superior mesenteric artery and vein was examined using immunohistochemical and immunoassay techniques in rats 8 weeks after induction of diabetes with streptozotocin (STZ). Increased density of innervation and fluorescence intensity was noted for substance P- and calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive nerves in the diabetic vessels. A slight increase in the density of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-immunoreactive nerve fibers innervating the mesenteric artery was also noted. However, there was no change in the density of neuropeptide Y- and dopamine beta-hydroxylase-immunoreactive nerve fibers, although the fluorescence intensity of neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive nerve fibers was reduced in diabetic rat vessels. Immunoassays showed that the levels of substance P- and calcitonin gene-related peptide were increased > 10-fold in the diabetic mesenteric vein, while levels of neuropeptide Y and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide were unchanged. In summary, there is a marked increase in nerve fibers containing sensory neuropeptides in mesenteric vessels of STZ-induced diabetic rats, which, in view of the reported impaired sensorimotor function in these vessels, is likely to reflect a neuropathic change.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Reversal of a body image disorder (macrosomatognosia) in Parkinson's disease by treatment with AC pulsed electromagnetic fields.

Macrosomatognosia refers to a disorder of the body image in which the patient perceives a part or parts of his body as disproportionately large. Macrosomatognosia has been associated with lesions in the parietal lobe, particularly the right parietal lobe, which integrates perceptual-sensorimotor functions concerned with the body image. It has been observed most commonly in patients with paroxysmal cerebral disorders such as epilepsy and migraine. The Draw-a-Person-Test has been employed in neuropsychological testing to identify disorders of the body image. Three fully medicated elderly Parkinsonian patients who exhibited, on the Draw-a-Person Test, macrosomatognosia involving the upper limbs are presented. In these patients spontaneous drawing of the figure of a man demonstrated disproportionately large arms. Furthermore, it was observed that the arm affected by tremor or, in the case of bilateral tremor, the arm showing the most severe tremor showed the greatest abnormality. This association implies that dopaminergic mechanisms influence neuronal systems in the nondominant right parietal lobe which construct the body image. After receiving a course of treatments with AC pulsed electromagnetic fields (EMFs) in the picotesla flux density applied transcranially, these patients' drawings showed reversal of the macrosomatognosia. These findings demonstrate that transcranial applications of AC pulsed EMFs affect the neuronal systems involved in the construction of the human body image and additionally reverse disorders of the body image in Parkinsonism which are related to right parietal lobe dysfunction.

Aged↗

PubMed1984

Drug-induced ego states. I. Cocaine: phenomenology and implications.

The ego state experienced by chronic users of cocaine is described in terms of sensorimotor functioning, cognitive functioning, emotionality, spatiality , temporality , causality, and materiality . At low use levels the state is pleasurable, but at high levels fear, anxiety, and paranoia increase, and ultimately reality contact breaks down. Q-sort, Semantic Differential, and other data suggest that low-level users take cocaine to overcome personal insecurities and relieve boredom. Heavy users take it to support overvaulting ambitions and intense strivings for self-sufficiency. Psychotherapy with such persons must deal with their counterdependency , anger, and despair, and with their underlying sense of betrayal . These persons have unacknowledged needs for spiritual experience that must be dealt with openly. A description of persons most vulnerable to heavy use of cocaine is provided, and recommendations for research and social policy are presented.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Progressive posttraumatic myelomalacic myelopathy: treatment with untethering and expansive duraplasty.

Patients with progressive posttraumatic myelomalacic myelopathy (PPMM), or tethered cord syndrome, present with symptoms and signs similar to those observed in case of progressive posttraumatic cystic myelopathy, that is, sensorimotor function deterioration, local and/or radicular pain, increased spasticity, increased autonomic dysreflexia, and sphincter dysfunction. The authors investigated surgical outcomes of untethering combined with expansive duraplasty. Forty patients with PPMM who presented with functional deterioration underwent untethering of the spinal cord and nerve roots with an expansive duraplasty. Meticulous dissections of adhesions on the dorsal and lateral aspects of the spinal cord and nerve roots were performed. Intraoperative ultrasonography was used to detect the presence of a confluent cyst and to assess the success of untethering. After surgery, the patients were treated using a protocol that involved frequent turning for 48 hours and subsequently mobilization. Preoperative magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, with and without administration of a contrast agent, was obtained in all patients, except one patient who underwent immediate and delayed computerized tomography (CT) myelography. The mean follow-up period was 3 years (range 20-57 months) for the 36 patients available for follow-up review. Spinal cord tethering was observed in all patients preoperatively. Trauma was the most common cause of this pathology, accounting for 31 of the 40 cases. Preoperative MR imaging did not demonstrate tumor recurrence in the group of five patients who had undergone an initial operation for tumor excision. The interval between the causative event and the operation was less than 5 years in half of the patients (20 of 40), with the longest interval lasting up to 37 years. Motor function deterioration was the most frequent manifestation; it was present in 31 of 40 patients. Improvements in motor function, autonomic dysreflexia, pain, sphincter dysfunction, and sensory function were found during the most recent follow-up examination in 79%, 75%, 62%, 50%, and 43% of the patients, respectively. Two patients experienced retethering of the spinal cord and one underwent a second operation. Surgical untethering and expansive duraplasty, followed by postoperative position rotation to avoid retethering, provide symptomatic relief for patients with PPMM.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Cervical spinal cord delivery of a rabies G protein pseudotyped lentiviral vector in the SOD-1 transgenic mouse. Invited submission from the Joint Section Meeting on Disorders of the Spine and Peripheral Nerves, March 2004.

OBJECT: Lentiviral vectors may constitute a vehicle for long-term therapeutic gene expression in the spinal cord. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, spinal cord sclerosis and altered axonal transport pose barriers to therapeutic gene distribution. In the present study the authors characterize gene expression distribution and the behavioral impact of the rabies G (RabG) protein pseudotyped lentiviral vector EIAV.LacZ through cervical spinal cord injection in control and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD-1) transgenic mice. METHODS: Seven-week-old SOD-1 transgenic mice and their wild-type littermates underwent exposure of the cervicomedullary junction and microinjection of RabG.EIAV.LacZ or vehicle. The Basso-Beattie-Bresnahan locomotor score, grip strength meter, and Rotarod assays were used to assess the effects of disease progression, spinal cord microinjection, and lentiviral gene expression. Spinal cords were removed when the mice were in the terminal stage of the disease. The distribution of LacZ gene expression was histologically evaluated and quantified. Direct cervical spinal cord microinjection of RabG.EIAV.LacZ results in extensive central nervous system uptake in SOD-1 transgenic mice; these findings were statistically similar to those in wild-type mice (p > 0.05). Gene expression lasts for the duration of the animal's survival (132 days). The SOD-1 mutation does not prevent retrograde axonal transport of the vector. Three behavioral assays were used to demonstrate that long-term gene expression does not alter sensorimotor function. In comparison with normative data, vector injection and transgene expression do not accelerate disease progression. CONCLUSIONS: Direct spinal cord injection of RabG.EIAV vectors represents a feasible method for delivering therapeutic genes to upper cervical spinal cord and brainstem motor neurons. Distribution is not affected by the SOD-1 mutation or disease phenotype.

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis↗

PubMed1980

Visually monitored postrotary nystagmus in seven autistic children.

Therapists who evaluate the sensorimotor functions of autistic children have become increasingly interested in monitoring their responses to vestibular stimulation. In this study, the duration of the nystagmus reflex is visually monitored and then measured by means of a stop-watch. Each of 7 autistic subjects received 18 sessions (36 trials) of horizontal semicircular canal stimulation during a period of 25 days. In each trial a graduated acceleration in a hand operated rotating chair preceded an abrupt stop, with a rapid deceleration from 180 degrees/second to 0 degree/second. Although subject option (intentional response) imposes limitations on the data interpretation, inspection of the nystagmus functions over time suggests the following: substantial trial-to-trial variability; substantial subject-to-subject variability; greater scores following trials to the subjects' left (the direction of the second trial in each session) than to the right (the direction of the first); and no evidence of consistent change for most subjects in nystagmus duration across the 36 trials. Implications for clinical evaluation of nystagmus are discussed.

Autistic Disorder↗

PubMed2000

Corticosteroid actions from neuronal membrane to behavior: neurophysiological mechanisms underlying rapid behavioral effects of corticosterone.

Investigation of the rapid suppression of male courtship clasping behavior by corticosterone in roughskin newts (Taricha granulosa) has led to the identification of a specific neuronal membrane receptor for this stress steroid. This paper describes studies of the neurophysiological effects of the rapid, membrane receptor mediated action of corticosterone on neurons that are involved in the control of clasping. In freely behaving newts, medullary neurons, including reticulospinal neurons, process clasp-triggering sensory signals and participate in control of clasping movements. Corticosterone injection causes these brainstem neurons to show selective depression of clasping-related sensorimotor function. These corticosterone effects appear in 3-10 min and are closely associated with the simultaneous depression of clasping. In addition to these functionally specific effects, corticosterone simultaneously causes widespread, primarily depressive effects on neuronal activity and excitability in the medulla and elsewhere in the brain. Thus, the membrane actions of corticosterone lead to diverse neural effects, including changes in membrane excitability as well as specific, network-level actions that are apparent only during behavior. These rapid corticosterone effects strongly interact with actions of the neuropeptides vasotocin and corticotropin-releasing factor, such that the form and magnitude of the steroid's effects depend on the prevailing neuroendocrine state of the brain.

Adrenal Cortex Hormones↗

PubMed2001

Eye-hand coordination in object manipulation.

We analyzed the coordination between gaze behavior, fingertip movements, and movements of the manipulated object when subjects reached for and grasped a bar and moved it to press a target-switch. Subjects almost exclusively fixated certain landmarks critical for the control of the task. Landmarks at which contact events took place were obligatory gaze targets. These included the grasp site on the bar, the target, and the support surface where the bar was returned after target contact. Any obstacle in the direct movement path and the tip of the bar were optional landmarks. Subjects never fixated the hand or the moving bar. Gaze and hand/bar movements were linked concerning landmarks, with gaze leading. The instant that gaze exited a given landmark coincided with a kinematic event at that landmark in a manner suggesting that subjects monitored critical kinematic events for phasic verification of task progress and subgoal completion. For both the obstacle and target, subjects directed saccades and fixations to sites that were offset from the physical extension of the objects. Fixations related to an obstacle appeared to specify a location around which the extending tip of the bar should travel. We conclude that gaze supports hand movement planning by marking key positions to which the fingertips or grasped object are subsequently directed. The salience of gaze targets arises from the functional sensorimotor requirements of the task. We further suggest that gaze control contributes to the development and maintenance of sensorimotor correlation matrices that support predictive motor control in manipulation.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

An Interdisciplinary Feeding Team Approachfor Preterm, High-Risk Infants and Children.

Poor oral feeding abilities in high-risk infants and children require interdisciplinary assessment and treatment in relation to nutrition, growth, oral feeding skills, behavioural interactions, and family coping. This paper describes the Perinatal Feeding Team's experiences, the format of our assessments, and the frequency of interventions recommended for 33 patients referred over 18 months. The most frequent reasons for assessment were suspected oral sensorimotor dysfunction/disorganization, decreased growth velocity, and feeding skills delay (each 18.3%); aversive reactions to feeding (14%) and significant parental stress around feedings (13.3%). Preassessment tools facilitated identification of relevant feeding problems. The dietitian, occupational therapist, psychologist, and parents played specific roles in providing a comprehensive feeding assessment. Interventions most frequently recommended were nutrition counselling (97%), food texture and feeding skill progression (90.9%), and normalizing sensorimotor function (84.8%). These findings led to the development of the Oral Eating Readiness Assessment List (ORAL(c)). Coordinated care plans are individualized and prioritized with parents. Our collaborative approach to multifaceted feeding difficulties in a follow-up clinic for preterm, high-risk children continues to evolve as we learn more about the needs of these children and their families.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

[Human performance against acute alcohol intoxication].

Analyzed were quantitative literary data on the effects of acute alcohol intoxication on performance. Reviewed were impacts of various doses of alcohol on the psychophysiological parameters and intricate sensorimotor functions of flying human operator. Alcohol was found to be unfavorable to the vestibular function and, therefore, predisposing to traffic and flight accidents. Hence, the alcohol CNS effects give rise to behavioral and psychophysiological disturbances. The psychophysiological disturbances are impaired concentration and dynamic visual function as a whole, deteriorated light differentiation ability and information perception, short-term amnesia, altered alertness and block, and associated lack of self-criticism and self-control.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed2002

Temporomandibular disorders after whiplash injury: a controlled, prospective study.

AIMS: Whiplash injury to the neck is often considered a significant risk factor for development of temporomandibular disorders (TMD), and has been proposed to produce internal derangements of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). Few studies, however, have examined TMD-related pain in acute whiplash patients compared with a matched control group. The aim of the present study was to assess pain and sensorimotor function in the craniofacial region in an unselected group of patients sustaining a motor vehicle accident involving a rear collision. METHODS: Prospectively, 19 acute whiplash patients exposed to a motor vehicle accident involving a rear collision participated in a study of TMD. The control group consisted of 20 age- and gender-matched ankle-injury patients. Participants were seen within 4 weeks and again at 6 months post-injury. The masticatory system was examined in accordance with the research diagnostic criteria. Participants underwent structured interviews, filled out the McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), and had their masticatory system examined by a trained dentist, blinded to their diagnosis. Pain detection threshold (PDT) to pressure stimuli, and maximal voluntary occlusal force (MVOF) were obtained at each visit. RESULTS: One whiplash patient and 1 ankle-injury patient had jaw pain at the first visit. Palpation scores of the TMJ and the summated palpation scores only tended to be higher in patients sustaining a whiplash injury than in ankle-injury controls at the first visit. However, MPQ, TMD symptoms and signs, MVOF and PDT were not significantly different in whiplash-injury and ankle-injury patients after 4 weeks and 6 months. CONCLUSION: TMD pain after whiplash injury and ankle injury is rare, suggesting that whiplash injury is not a major risk factor for the development of TMD problems. Further studies are needed to identify which other factors may contribute to TMD pain.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Laryngopharyngeal manifestations of reflux: diagnosis and therapy.

Acid reflux--most often associated with heartburn--may also cause a wide range of laryngopharyngeal symptoms, including laryngitis and chronic cough. Symptoms of laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR), like those of gastrooesophageal reflux disease, result from abnormal exposure of tissues to acid refluxate. Deranged sensorimotor function of the upper oesophageal sphincter appears to play a key role in the aetiology of LPR, but the disease is not completely understood. Among the significant long-term complications of LPR are bronchopulmonary disorders, recurrent pneumonia, chronic cough, chronic or recurrent laryngitis, and oral cavity disorders. It also appears to be a risk factor for the development of laryngeal carcinoma. Diagnosis of LPR is based on physical examination, medical history, and results of specific tests. At present, the test of choice for LPR diagnosis is intraluminal oesophageal pH monitoring. Barium contrast oesophagography, intraoesophageal acid perfusion challenge, and flexible endoscopic evaluation of swallowing with sensory testing may also be used in LPR diagnosis. Treatment for LPR includes changes to the diet and lifestyle, and acid-suppressing therapy. The Therapeutic Working Party at the First Multi-Disciplinary International Symposium on Supraesophageal Complications of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease has recommended twice-daily dosing with a proton pump inhibitor as an initial therapy for LPR, with treatment continued between 4 weeks and 6 months. Such treatment has been found highly effective in resolving symptoms of LPR, and it may also prevent the serious long-term complications of this condition.

Gastroesophageal Reflux↗

PubMed1992

Decrement in manual arm performance during whole body cooling.

Six subjects performed three manual arm tasks: 1) prior to immersion in 8 degrees C water; 2) soon after immersion to the neck, but prior to any decrease in core temperature; and 3) every 15 min until core temperatures decreased 2-4.5 degrees C. The tasks were speed of flexion and extension of the fingers, handgrip strength and manual dexterity. There was no immediate effect of cold immersion; however, all scores decreased significantly after core temperature decreased 0.5 degrees C. Further decrease in core temperature was associated with a progressive impairment of performance, although at a slower rate than during the first 0.5 degrees C decrease. Flexion and extension of the fingers was affected relatively more than handgrip strength or manual dexterity. Decrement in performance is a result of peripheral cooling on sensorimotor function with a probable additional effect of central cooling on cerebral function.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Brainstem mechanisms of persistent pain following injury.

Nerve signals arising from sites of tissue or nerve injury lead to long-term changes in the central nervous system and contribute to hyperalgesia and the amplification and persistence of pain. These nociceptor activity-dependent changes are referred to as central sensitization. Central sensitization involves an increase in the excitability of medullary dorsal horn (subnucleus caudalis) and spinal dorsal horn neurons brought about by a series of events including neuronal depolarization; removal of the voltage-dependent magnesium block of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor; release of calcium from intracellular stores; phosphorylation of the NMDA, alpha amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate (AMPA), and neurokinin (NK) 1 receptors via activation of protein kineses; a change in the neuron's excitability; and an increase in synaptic strength. Central sensitization occurs in trigeminal nociceptive pathways, and more robust neuronal hyperexcitability occurs following deep tissue stimulation than cutaneous stimulation. Utilizing Fos protein immunocytochemistry, it has been found that 2 distinct regions are activated in the trigeminal brainstem sensory nuclei, the subnuclei interpolaris/caudalis transition zone (Vi/Vc) and the caudal part of the subnucleus caudalis. The latter is very similar to the spinal dorsal horn and is involved in the sensory discriminative aspects of pain. In contrast, the ventral pole of the Vi/Vc is unique. In addition to its role in the nociceptive sensory processing of deep tissues, it is involved bilaterally in somatovisceral and somatoautonomic processing, activation of the pituitary-adrenal axis, and descending modulatory control. The findings support our overall hypothesis that the ventral pole of Vi/Vc is involved in the coordination of bilateral sensorimotor functions of the trigeminal system associated with the response to deep tissue injury.

Animals↗