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Nonterrorist suicidal deaths involving explosives.

Suicidal deaths involving explosives unconnected to terrorism are rare. The investigation of deaths from explosive devices requires a multidisciplinary collaborative effort, as demonstrated in this study. Reported are 2 cases of nonterrorist suicidal explosive-related deaths with massive craniocerebral destruction. The first case involves a 20-year-old man who was discovered in the basement apartment of his father's home seconds after an explosion. At the scene investigators recovered illegal improvised power-technique explosive devices, specifically M-100s, together with the victim's handwritten suicide note. The victim exhibited extensive craniofacial injuries, which medicolegal officials attributed to the decedent's intentionally placing one of these devices in his mouth. The second case involves a 46-year-old man who was found by his wife at his home. In the victim's facial wound, investigators recovered portions of a detonator blasting cap attached to electrical lead wires extending to his right hand. A suicide note was discovered at the scene. The appropriate collection of physical evidence at the scene of the explosion and a detailed examination of the victim's history is as important as documentation of injury patterns and recovery of trace evidence at autopsy. A basic understanding of the variety of explosive devices is also necessary. This investigatory approach greatly enhances the medicolegal death investigator's ability to reconstruct the fatal event as a means of separating accidental and homicidal explosive-related deaths from this uncommon form of suicide.

Adult↗

Audiometric configurations following exposure to explosions.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the configurations in pathologic audiograms obtained in patients shortly after exposure to an explosion. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS: Audiograms were performed in 143 patients (286 ears; 76 males and 67 females, with a mean age of 34.6 years [range, 11-79 years]) sent to the Department of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery in a city hospital located in the center of Jerusalem, Israel, after being injured in 4 severe explosions occurring in Jerusalem during 1995-1997. Most of the audiograms were obtained within 4 hours after the explosion, and the remaining were obtained within 4 days of the explosion. RESULTS: Of 200 pathologic audiograms, 93 (46%) showed a downward slope configuration, 82 (41%) showed a dip configuration, and 25 (12%) were flat. There were 38 audiograms (19%) with 6-kHz dips. In 82% of the patients, the audiometric configurations were similar in both ears. Patients with a slope configuration on the audiogram were significantly older than those with a dip configuration (mean age, 40.8 vs 32.8 years; P<.01). CONCLUSIONS: There does not appear to be a single typical audiometric configuration in patients exposed to explosions. The slope and dip configurations are most frequently seen and are approximately equal in their incidence. This observation may lead to better understanding damage to the inner ear as a result of an explosion. This study is distinctive because of the large number of audiograms obtained and the fact that most of them were obtained immediately after the explosion.

Adolescent↗

Solid phase microextraction ion mobility spectrometer interface for explosive and taggant detection.

Ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) is a rugged, inexpensive, sensitive, field portable technique for the detection of organic compounds. It is widely employed in ports of entry and by the military as a particle detector for explosives and drugs of abuse. Solid phase microextraction (SPME) is an effective extraction technique that has been successfully employed in the field for the pre-concentration of a variety of compounds. Many organic high explosives do not have a high enough vapor pressure for effective vapor sampling. However, these explosives and their commercial explosive mixtures have characteristic volatile components detectable in their headspace. In addition, taggants are added to explosives to aid in detection through headspace sampling. SPME can easily extract these compounds from the headspace for IMS vapor detection. An interface that couples SPME to IMS was constructed and evaluated for the detection of the following detection taggants: 2-nitrotoluene (2-NT), 4-nitrotoluene (4-NT), and 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dinitrobutane (DMNB). The interface was also evaluated for the following common explosives: smokeless powder (nitrocellulose, NC), 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT), 2,6-dinitrotoluene (2,6-DNT), 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (2,4,6-TNT), hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-s-triazine (RDX), and pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN). This is the first peer reviewed report of a SPME-IMS system that is shown to extract volatile constituent chemicals and detection taggants in explosives from a headspace for subsequent detection in a simple, rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive manner.

Butanes↗

Bioremediation of soils contaminated with explosives.

The large-scale industrial production and processing of munitions such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) over the past 100 years led to the disposal of wastes containing explosives and nitrated organic by-products into the environment. In the US, the Army alone has estimated that over 1.2 million tons of soil have been contaminated with explosives, and the impact of explosives contamination in other countries is of similar magnitude. In recent years, growing concern about the health and ecological threats posed by man-made chemicals have led to studies of the toxicology of explosives, which have identified toxic and mutagenic effects of the common military explosives and their transformation products (Bruns-Nagel et al., 1999a; Fuchs et al., 2001; Homma-Takeda et al., 2002; Honeycutt et al., 1996; Rosenblatt et al., 1991; Spanggord et al., 1982; Tan et al., 1992 and Won et al., 1976). Because the cleanup of areas contaminated by explosives is now mandated because of public health concerns, considerable effort has been invested in finding economical remediation technologies. Biological treatment processes are often considered, since these are usually the least expensive means of destroying organic pollution. This review examines the most important groups of chemicals that must be treated at sites contaminated by explosives processing, the chemical and biological transformations they undergo, and commercial processes developed to exploit these transformations for treatment of contaminated soil. We critically examine about 150 papers on the topic, including approximately 60 published within the past 5 years.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗

Explosive decomposition of ethylene oxide at elevated condition: effect of ignition energy, nitrogen dilution, and turbulence.

Experimental and theoretical investigation of explosive decomposition of ethylene oxide (EO) at fixed initial experimental parameters (T=100 degrees C, P=4 bar) in a 20-l sphere was conducted. Safety-related parameters, namely the maximum explosion pressure, the maximum rate of pressure rise, and the Kd values, were experimentally determined for pure ethylene oxide and ethylene oxide diluted with nitrogen. The influence of the ignition energy on the explosion parameters was also studied. All these dependencies are quantified in empirical formulas. Additionally, the effect of turbulence on explosive decomposition of ethylene oxide was investigated. In contrast to previous studies, it is found that turbulence significantly influences the explosion severity parameters, mostly the rate of pressure rise. Thermodynamic models are used to calculate the maximum explosion pressure of pure and of nitrogen-diluted ethylene oxide, at different initial temperatures. Soot formation was experimentally observed. Relation between the amounts of soot formed and the explosion pressure was experimentally observed and was calculated.

Disinfectants↗

Fluorescence quenching as an indirect detection method for nitrated explosives.

A novel approach based on fluorescence quenching is presented for the analysis of nitrated explosives. Seventeen common explosives and their degradation products are shown to be potent quenchers of pyrene, having Stern-Volmer constants that generally increase with the degree of nitration. Aromatic explosives such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (2,4,6-TNT) are more effective quenchers than aliphatic or nitramine explosives. In addition, nitroaromatic explosives are found to have unique interactions with pyrene that lead to a wavelength dependence of their Stern-Volmer constants. This phenomenon allows for their differentiation from other nitrated explosives. The fluorescence quenching method is then applied to the determination of hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazine(HMX), 2,4,6-TNT, nitromethane, and ammonium nitrate in various commercial explosive samples. The samples are separated by capillary liquid chromatography with post-column addition of the pyrene solution and detection by laser-induced fluorescence. The indirect fluorescence quenching method shows increased sensitivity and selectivity over traditional UV-visible absorbance as well as the ability to detect a wider range of organic and inorganic nitrated compounds.

Air Pollutants↗

Military explosives and health: organic energetic compound syndrome?

Military explosives, which are Organic Energetic Compounds (OECs), might be initiating factors in clusters of warfare related illnesses. Substances such as HMX, RDX and TNT are neurotoxic and are possible human carcinogens. Not all the explosive material is consumed in an explosion so that the use of explosives generates harmful dust. In many clusters of illnesses a link can be defined with explosives. In researching for the cause of the illnesses several possibilities are mentioned, but explosives are rarely mentioned. This article considers the possible role of OECs, with the intention of encouraging studies to make the role of explosives clear: no cause, a link with insufficient evidence or the cause of many illnesses.

Azocines↗

[Clinical characteristics of burn caused by coal mine explosion].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the characteristics of the burn injury caused by coal mine explosion so as to enhance the cure rate. METHODS: Analyse the therapeutic result after planned standard treatment of clinical patients and review historical patients. RESULTS: 1. Coal mine explosion includes two types, i.e., gas explosion and coal dust explosion. 2. This kind of burn is a combined injury with pathologic changes of burns as the main feature. Mechanical injury is the chief cause of early death. Blast injury mainly damages the lungs. The occurrence of carboxyhemoglobinemia is not often. 3. The amount of fluid infusion in the first 24 h in exudation phase is 8% less of the traditional formula. Alkaline balanced salt solution is supplied as electrolyte solution, which can provide 45% of necessary HCO3- for correction of acidosis. 4. No thorough debridement is imposed in the treatment of burn wound. Baking with electric bulb with topical SD-Ag in semi-exposure state can be used. 5. Inhalation injury chiefly occurs in upper respiratory tract. The main bacterial species causing complicated lung infection are Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. 6. When MSOF occurs, the most frequently involved organ and system are the kidney and respiratory system. 7. The main bacteria causing systemic invasive infection are enteric bacilli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Enteric bacilli infection may be enterogenic. The latter infection is chiefly the result of cross infection in hospital. CONCLUSION: The burn caused by coal mine explosion is a combined injury characterized by pathologic changes of burn as the main issue. This kind of burn has two types, i.e., gas-explosion-burn and coal-dust-explosion-burn.

Adolescent↗

Quantitative structure-activity relationships in enzymatic single-electron reduction of nitroaromatic explosives: implications for their cytotoxicity.

The mechanisms of cytotoxicity of polynitroaromatic explosives, an important group of environmental pollutants, remain insufficiently studied so far. We have found that the rate constants of single-electron enzymatic reduction, and the enthalpies of single-electron reduction of nitroaromatic compounds (DeltaHf(ArNO(2)(-*)), obtained by quantum mechanical calculation, may serve as useful tools for the analysis of cytotoxicity of nitroaromatic explosives with respect to the possible involvement of oxidative stress. The single-electron reduction rate constants of a number of explosives including 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) and 2,4,6-trinitrophenyl-N-methylnitramine (tetryl), and model nitroaromatic compounds by ferredoxin:NADP(+) reductase (FNR, EC 1.18.1.2) and NADPH:cytochrome P-450 reductase (P-450R, EC 1.6.2.4) increased with a decrease in DeltaHf(ArNO(2)(-*)). This indicates that the reduction rates are determined by the electron transfer energetics, but not by the particular structure of the explosives. The cytotoxicity of explosives to bovine leukemia virus-transformed lamb kidney fibroblasts (line FLK) increased with a corresponding increase in their reduction rate constant by P-450R and FNR, or with a decrease in their DeltaHf(ArNO(2)(-*)). This points to an importance of oxidative stress in the toxicity of explosives in this cell line, which was further evidenced by the protective effects of desferrioxamine and the antioxidant N,N'-diphenyl-p-phenylene diamine, and an increase in lipid peroxidation. DT-diaphorase (EC 1.6.99.2) exerted a minor and equivocal role in the cytotoxicity of explosives to FLK cells.

Aniline Compounds↗

Effects of bronchial intermittent constrictions on explosive flow during coughing in the dogs.

This study tested the hypothesis that intrathoracic bronchi intermittently constrict during coughing and attempted to elucidate the effect on explosive flow. The subjects were 21 dogs having undergone tracheostomy. In the first group A (n = 7), the diameter of the fifth-generation bronchus was measured with a balloon-tipped catheter and the change during coughing was analyzed. In the other group (n = 14), the dogs were vagotomized and coughing was simulated by sequential application of positive and negative airway pressures (sham cough). The effects of the bronchial constriction, elicited by the stimulation of vagus efferent fibers, on explosive flow and airway pressure of sham cough were analyzed. The bronchus was constricted in explosive phase of spontaneous coughing in all the dogs of the first group. When cough bouts were repetitively developed, bronchial constriction and phrenic burst developed simultaneously. The intermittent bronchial constrictions fused and virtually acted as tonic constriction. In the second group of dogs the explosive flow of sham cough consisted of two phases; a short bout followed by a near-constant flow. When the bronchus was constricted, the explosive flow was still biphasic in 12 dogs and an exponential decay pattern formed in 2 of them. In these 12 dogs, the peak explosive flow slightly but significantly decreased (mean +/- SD, 1.39 +/- 0.23 vs. 1.34 +/- 0.23 l/s) and airway pressure in the segmental bronchus became smaller (-1.18 +/- 0.53 vs. -0.15 +/- 0.94 cmH(2)O). We concluded that intermittent bronchial constrictions act as tonic one during coughing. Bronchial constriction slightly decreased the peak explosive flow and moved the choke point to the proximal airway.

Animals↗

Determining explosivity part II: comparison of small-scale cartridge tests to actual pipe bombs.

The small-scale explosivity device (SSED) has been used to assess the explosive power of a number of low explosives-smokeless powders (WC-870, Red Dot, Bullseye, Winchester Action Pistol, and IMR-PB), Pyrodex, black powder, and an improvised explosive (TATP). The device requires 2 g of energetic material, a heavy-walled containment vessel, and a standard blast shield to permit use in most laboratories. The data from the SSED are compared with the fragmentation of pipe bombs which contained 300 to 700 g of powder. The SSED provided the same relative ordering of explosivity as suggested by the fragmentation of the real devices. In addition, the SSED was used to evaluate the chemical residue remaining after an explosion. Issues in using the device such as optimal detonators and restricted reaction volume were probed using three high explosives--TNT, Tetryl, and RDX.

Journal Article↗

Water-soaked evidence: detectability of explosive traces after immersion in water.

Various factors governing the detectability of explosive traces after being soaked in water were studied. The variables are: the type of the surface (surfaces liable to be found in aircraft were chosen), the type of explosive, the type of water (tap or seawater), and movement of the immersed surface in the water. The maximal immersion times (tmax) after which explosive detection was possible were evaluated. This datum was found to depend on the type of explosive (one of the important factors is solubility in water), the surface material and the environmental conditions (tap or seawater movement). Detection of PETN on high-density polyethylene, linoleum, glass and aluminum, by the chemical Explosive Testing Kit (ETK), was possible even after a month of soaking in seawater. In addition, it has been found that movement of bulk water around the samples with deposited explosives considerably decreases tmax values. It is, therefore, recommended to retrieve samples for explosive analysis as soon as possible and in areas where the currents of water is minimal.

Journal Article↗

A new model of blast injury from a spherical explosive and its special wound in the maxillofacial region.

OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to establish an efficient explosive model with spherical explosives for the study of blast injury and its wound characteristics in the maxillofacial region. METHODS: Different spherical explosives were used to produce blast waves and to establish the wound model. Fresh sheep heads as the targets were used for the study of wound characteristics. The wounding parameters and the injuries of targets after explosion were observed. RESULTS: The overpressure values of blast waves decreased exponentially along with the increase of distances to explosives and so did the tissue damage. The blast injury is quite different from other injuries and is more serious. A kind of special "split fracture" of the mandibles was found. CONCLUSIONS: The new explosive wound model with spherical explosives can be used for the study of blast injury in the laboratory. The injury manner of blast wave and the local anatomy of tissues resulted in the special wound characteristics.

Animals↗

Explosion injuries in Finland 1991-1995.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Explosion injuries have been considered an increasing problem in many countries. This study describes the incidence and significance of injuries of this kind in Finland. MATERIAL AND METHODS: All explosion injuries in the Finnish hospital records from January 1991 to December 1995 were studied. RESULTS: A total of 493 persons (2.0 cases per 100,000 person-years) required hospital treatment for injuries caused by explosions. In addition to the injured, 14 persons died. Causes of the accidents were the following: various unspecified explosions in 32% of the cases, fireworks in 29%, explosive materials in 25%, and explosions of pressure vessels in 13%. The male to female ratio was 9:1, and the average age of the injured was 30 years. The injury profile showed soft tissue wounds in 26%, burns in 25%, ear and eye injuries in 23%, crush and traumatic amputations in 14%, fractures in 10%, and neurological in 2%. The average in-patient time was 11 days corresponding to altogether 5640 hospital days. CONCLUSIONS: Explosion injuries are epidemiologically not a great problem in comparison with all accidents, but neither can they be considered nowadays as a negligible medical problem in Finland.

Adult↗

Explosion-related deaths in Sweden--a forensic-pathologic and criminalistic study.

All cases of death caused by explosions of explosive solids, fluids and gases in Sweden during the 6-year period 1979-1984 were analyzed. Among the total of 61 fatalities 33 (54%) were due to accidents (2/3 of them occupational and 1/3 miscellaneous accidents), 25 (41%) were suicides, and only 3 (5%) were associated with terrorist activity. About one half of the occupational accidents were caused by deficient safety devices or defective equipment, while the other half was due to transgression of regulations. All suicides were males, relatively elderly, the majority of them burdened with somatic and mental diseases, alcoholism, social or economical problems, most of them being familiar with explosives. The anatomical localization of suicidal explosive injuries was regular and symmetric, while the accidental and terrorist injuries showed great variations. The terrorist-associated deaths had common features different from all other death cases, strongly suggesting the same type of bomb and the same terrorist group. Explosives caused only superficial burns or singes. Symmetric hemorrhages of the vocal folds and fracture of the laryngeal skeleton were found, as well as ruptures of trachea and lungs. When not ruptured, the lungs showed to different types of injury: hyperinflation, probably due to the blast-induced barotrauma to the respiratory passages, or lung contusions. In cases of suspected terrorist explosions close collaboration between the forensic pathologists and police investigators is mandatory since the bodies of victims protect parts of the bomb from fire or from being spread over a larger area and thus constitute a part of the crime scene.

Accidents↗

Determination of nitroaromatic and nitramine explosives from a PTFE wipe using thermal desorption-gas chromatography with electron-capture detection.

A method for the detection of nitroaromatic and nitramine explosives from a PTFE wipe has been developed using thermal desorption andgas chromatography with electron-capture detection (TD-GC-ECD). For method development a standard mixture containing eight nitroaromatic and two nitramine (HMX and RDX) explosive compounds was spiked onto a PTFE wipe. Explosives were desorbed from the wipe in a commercial thermal desorption system and trapped onto a cooled injection system, which was incorporated into the injection port of the GC. A dual column, dual ECD configuration was adopted to enable simultaneous confirmation analysis of the explosives desorbed. For the desorption of 50 ng of each explosive, desorption efficiencies ranged between 80.0 and 117%, for both columns. Linearity over the range 2.5-50 ng was demonstrated for each explosive on both columns with r2 values ranging from 0.979 to 0.991 and limits of detection less than 4 ng. Desorption of HMX from a PTFE wipe has also been demonstrated for the first time, albeit at relatively high loadings (100 ng).

Aniline Compounds↗

Otologic consequences of blast exposure: a Finnish case study of a shopping mall bomb explosion.

OBJECTIVE: On 11 October, 2002, in the Myyrmanni shopping mall, Vantaa city, Finland, an explosion by a suicide bomber killed 7 people and injured at least 160,44 of whom had ear trauma. We investigated the acute and subacute otologic consequences of the explosion. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Otologic examination of the 29 patients treated for ear trauma at the ENT clinic of the University Hospital of Helsinki was performed during the first month after the explosion, and a questionnaire was completed regarding subjective aural symptoms. Symptoms occurring directly after the explosion and for up to 1 month afterwards were assessed. RESULTS: Of the 29 patients, 66% had tinnitus as the initial symptom, 55% hearing loss, 41% pain in the ears and 28% sound distortion. Tinnitus and hearing loss in combination were experienced by 12 patients (41%). Eight patients who had been situated<10 m from the center of the explosion had a rupture of the tympanic membrane. This supported the initial evaluation by the authorities that the bomb had consisted of approximately 3 kg ammonium nitrate, equivalent to approximately 0.5 kg of trinitrotoluene. It was estimated that some kind of ear injury was likely for individuals situated<70 m from the center of the explosion. CONCLUSIONS: People often think that tinnitus and hearing impairment are naturally occurring phenomena after blast exposure, and if their symptoms resolve they do not seek medical advice. However, some of them may have substantial hearing impairment, particularly at high frequencies. Otologic consultation, or at least an audiometric screening test to exclude hearing impairment, should be performed regardless of symptoms, on the basis of exposure data only. Some symptoms, such as tinnitus and hearing loss, may be permanent consequences of a blast injury and their effect on quality of life may be substantial.

Adolescent↗

Vapor-phase transport of explosives from buried sources in soils.

The fate and transport of explosives in the soil pore vapor spaces affects both the potential detection of buried ordnance by chemical sensors and vadose zone transport of explosives residues. The efficacy of chemical sensors and their potential usefulness for detecting buried unexploded ordnance (UXO) is difficult to determine without understanding how its chemical signatures are transported through soil. The objectives of this study were to quantify chemical signature transport through soils under various environmental conditions in unsaturated soils and to develop a model for the same. Flux chambers, large soil containers, and batch tests were used to determine explosives signature movement and process descriptors for model development. Low signatures were observed for explosives (2,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,6-dinitrotoluene, and 1,3-dinitrobenzene) under all environmental conditions. A diffusion model was used to describe the chemical transport mechanism in the soil pore air. The soil-air partition constant was treated as a fit parameter in the model owing to the uncertainty in its a priori estimation. The model predictions of the trends in experimental fluxes and the soil concentration were only marginal at best. It was concluded that better estimates of the partition constant are required for more accurate estimation of the chemical concentration at the soil-air interface. Chemical sensors will need to be very sensitive because of low signatures. However, this may result in many false alarms because of explosives residues not associated with UXO on firing ranges. Low explosives signatures also should result in insignificant air environmental exposures.

Air Pollutants↗