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PubMed1985

Gender differences in life expectancy among kibbutz members.

A literature review of findings reveals that the life expectancy (LE) of females is longer than that of males and that a strong relationship exists between LE and gender differences in LE. The arguments of biological vs societal reasons for such gender differences are presented and the kibbutz society is offered as a setting to test the rivaling hypotheses. It is argued that the kibbutz society offers more similar roles for both genders than outside the kibbutz and therefore the gender differences in LE should be reduced in comparison to what is expected, given the very high LE of kibbutz members. Statistical data of the kibbutz population between the years 1975-1980 are analyzed and the results support the following conclusions: female members have higher LE but the difference is much less than expected on the basis of a regression analysis of data from 73 societies; the difference is smaller due to the relatively higher gain in LE by males; the gender differences are even smaller at age 50 compared to LE differences at birth. The Discussion section dwells upon interpretations of the findings and argues against alternative interpretations that assume selection processes for the kibbutz population. Suggestions for further studies are also made.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Gender differences in caregiving: fact or artifact?

This study applies meta-analysis techniques to the results of 14 descriptive studies of gender differences in caregiving to determine the size and significance of gender differences in caregiving stressors (level of elder impairment and level and type of task involvement) and in caregiver burden. There were essentially no significant gender differences in functional impairment of the frail care recipient, total caregiver involvement in care, or in money management tasks. Female caregivers were more likely to carry out personal care and household tasks and more likely to report greater burden. Given the relatively small size of the effects found, we conclude that future research should focus on the part that gender-role explanations play in assigning meaning to caregiving behaviors.

Caregivers↗

PubMed1992

Gender differences in mate selection preferences: a test of the parental investment model.

Evolutionary-related hypotheses about gender differences in mate selection preferences were derived from Triver's parental investment model, which contends that women are more likely than men to seek a mate who possesses nonphysical characteristics that maximize the survival or reproductive prospects of their offspring, and were examined in a meta-analysis of mate selection research (questionnaire studies, analyses of personal advertisements). As predicted, women accorded more weight than men to socioeconomic status, ambitiousness, character, and intelligence, and the largest gender differences were observed for cues to resource acquisition (status, ambitiousness). Also as predicted, gender differences were not found in preferences for characteristics unrelated to progeny survival (sense of humor, "personality"). Where valid comparisons could be made, the findings were generally invariant across generations, cultures, and research paradigms.

Female↗

PubMed1992

Transnational stability of gender differences in schizophrenia? An analysis based on the WHO study on determinants of outcome of severe mental disorders.

Gender-specific analyses of the multinational WHO-Determinants of Outcome-Study (including 1,292 cases from 10 countries) demonstrate the transnational stability of major findings on gender differences in schizophrenia: Male patients have an earlier mean age at onset in all countries. In female patients, the distribution of the age at onset shows a second peak after age 40 years. No gender differences on nuclear symptoms of schizophrenia can be detected, but on uncharacteristic symptoms, particularly some aspects of the illness behaviour, differences appear. This investigation supports the transcultural validity of gender differences found in the German ABC-Schizophrenia-Study and in the Danish-German Psychiatric Case Register studies.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Gender differences in exposure to life events and adaptation to retirement.

Gender differences in the experience of life events surrounding the retirement transition and the effects of such life event experiences on men's and women's adaptation to retirement were investigated. Data based on a stratified random sample of retirees covered by Florida's State Retirement System (n = 452 women and 378 men) indicate that women report more life events than men, particularly during the period preceding retirement. Furthermore, women's retirement adaptation seems more affected than men's by the experience of life events. The major conclusion to be drawn from these results is that better understanding of gender differences in the retirement experience can be achieved only if gender variations in the circumstances of the retirement transition are acknowledged and further explored.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1992

Gender differences in infirmary use at a residential summer camp.

Studies of health behavior in adults show that women report more morbidity and greater health service utilization than do men, despite lower mortality rates. Explanations involve social and biological gender differences in adult life. Infirmary utilization at a residential summer camp where parental influence is minimized was studied to determine whether these gender differences occur in the pediatric age group. Three hundred ninety-eight campers, 8 to 18 years old were studied. Girls were observed to make greater use of the infirmary than boys (p less than .01) and were especially likely to present with minor trauma, both musculoskeletal (p less than .05) and skin (p less than .01). No correlation was found between age and frequency of visits. Obvious morbidity was similar for boys and girls, in that no gender difference was observed in those visiting for definite medical indications alone or in those admitted. However, a difference was evident in those visiting for minor and trivial problems, particularly in those making three or more visits for minor and trivial problems (p less than .01). Although obvious morbidity was no different in campers, girls used the infirmary more than boys in a manner similar to that reported for adult health behavior. This suggests that gender differences occur earlier than suspected and are not simply related to adult social roles.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Gender differences in tobacco use in Kenya.

This study has assessed gender differences in smoking and the use of smokeless tobacco for younger adults and their parents in samples from five ethnic groups in Kenya. These samples were from two groups of pastoralists (the Maasai and the Samburu), a group engaged in fishing and farming (the Luo), and two groups of relatively Westernized Kenyans primarily involved in commercial occupations (from the Kisii and the Gikuyu ethnic groups). In four of the five study groups, there was little or no difference in the prevalence of smokeless tobacco use in either the younger or older generation. Similarly, in four of the study groups there was little or no gender difference in the prevalence of smoking for the older generation. In contrast, for the younger generation in every study group except the Luo, men were much more likely than women to smoke cigarettes. The attitudes toward tobacco use reported by the younger generation showed similar patterns. In every study group except the Luo, the younger adults reported that smokeless tobacco use was socially acceptable for both men and women, but smoking was acceptable only for men. Many of the younger women reported that they did not smoke because it would not be socially acceptable. The interview data suggest that the social prohibition against women's smoking was one component of more general restrictions on women's behavior, and the absence of restrictions on men's smoking was related to men's greater social power. The Luo were the only study group in which respondents reported that women should have as much influence as men in decision making. Correspondingly, the Luo were the only study group in which most respondents considered it acceptable for women to smoke and women were as likely as men to smoke cigarettes.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1988

Gender differences in age at onset of schizophrenia. An overview.

We present the results of a review of the literature concerning gender differences in age at the onset of schizophrenia. In view of the very consistent finding that the first admission to hospital for schizophrenia occurs on average earlier in men than in women we examined the question whether this is due to the fact that the psychosis manifests itself earlier in men or that the period between first manifestation and admission to hospital is shorter than in women. By means of a metaanalytic approach we then looked for evidence for the existence of local or temporal variations in the degree of gender difference. Lastly, we dealt with the question whether gender differences in age of onset can be observed in other functional psychoses.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1990

Gender differences in affective, schizoaffective, and schizophrenic disorders.

This study examines gender differences in the clinical profiles and long-term outcomes of chronic DSM-III Axis I psychotic inpatients from the Chestnut Lodge followup study. Diagnostic groups include schizophrenia, schizoaffective psychosis, and unipolar affective disorder. Sex differences were frequent, especially in schizophrenia. Females with schizophrenia, for example, had superior premorbid social, sexual, and marital adjustments. They presented at index hospitalization with more depression, self-destructive behaviors, and troubled interpersonal relationships. Their long-term outcomes were better than males in terms of social activity, work competence, time symptomatic, substance abuse, and marital and parental status. Baseline gender differences were comparatively sparse for the schizoaffective and unipolar cohorts. Outcome differences were virtually nonexistent among the schizoaffective patients but unipolar females received better ratings than males in work competence and substance abuse. Females had a later onset of illness and males presented with more antisocial behaviors across all three diagnostic groups. Results highlight the importance of analyzing data by gender in studies of the psychotic disorders.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Gender differences in health risks and physical symptoms among the homeless.

Gender differences in health risks and symptoms are compared for a survey sample of 100 homeless persons and for the general population. Homeless men appear at greater risk of exhibiting symptoms. Nonetheless, homeless women report more symptoms, a result consistent with general population trends. Predisposing illnesses were the most accurate predictors of the number of reported symptoms, but gender explained a significant amount of variation in reported symptoms after other health risks were controlled. The findings inform the debate on the relative importance of biological factors, acquired risks, illness perception and behavior, and reporting bias in explaining why women report more symptoms in survey research. It appears likely that female reporting bias and gender differences in illness perception are underestimated in general population surveys because even under extreme conditions, men are less likely than women to report symptoms.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Gender differences in the psychosocial correlates of suicidal ideation among adolescents.

Gender differences in the psychosocial correlates of suicidal ideation were studied. A sample of 613 high school students (ages 14-19) completed measures of suicidal ideation, depression, hopelessness, life stress, loneliness, alcohol and drug use, and reasons for living. The results of a discriminant function analysis indicated that males reported higher loneliness and substance abuse scores than females whereas females reported greater suicidal ideation, depression, and reasons for living. The results of multiple regression analyses found that, although the same four variables, depression, hopelessness, substance abuse, and few reasons for living emerged as significant predictors of suicidal ideation in both samples, the predictive equation accounted for more of the variance in ideation scores in females (57%) than in males (46%). In a final analysis a discriminant function analysis of the subscales of the reasons for living inventory revealed that females have a greater fear of death and injury whereas males have a greater fear of social disapproval over having suicidal thoughts. This may account for the greater rate of suicide completing among males. Fear of social disapproval, more anger and impulsivity, and less help-seeking behavior among males are offered as potential variables to explain the observed gender differences.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

Gender differences between the effect of monosodium glutamate on food intake in rats.

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) was recently reported to increase feeding in ad lib. fed rats [Reddy et al.(4)]. In the present study the responses of male and female adult rats to subcutaneous (SC) administration of MSG were compared. In female rats MSG 3 g/kg did not significantly affect food or water intake as compared with SC NaCl 0.9%; MSG 6 g/kg significantly reduced food intake but increased water intake. On the contrary, in male rats MSG 6 g/kg significantly increased food and water intake. It is concluded that there are differences between genders of rats in what concerns the effect of glutamate on food intake.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Gender differences in pre-retirement attitudes and activities in a Puerto Rican sample.

The objective of this study was to identify the pre-retirement attitudes and activities of personnel at the Medical Sciences Campus of the University of Puerto Rico in order to ascertain the existence of any differences by gender. It was expected that the persistence of the traditional double standard of conduct for men and women in contemporary Puerto Rican society would find women with a more positive attitude towards retirement since, it will not affect their self-esteem relative to the breadwinner role as it does for men. For purposes of this study a questionnaire was developed consisting of: background information, activity level indicator, and a pre-retirement attitude indicator. A sample of 235 subjects was systematically selected, of these 66 (28 per cent) are male and 169 (72 per cent) are female. The gender groups were sub-divided into occupational sub-categories of faculty and non-faculty. The average age of female faculty is 41 years as compared to 37 years for non-faculty females but both groups of males average 41 years. Females had lower levels of educational attainment than the male respondents and this results in their having a lower income level. The relation of occupational category to activity was significant but that of gender was not. Gender was found to influence the types of activities participated in. The findings lead to the conclusion that gender continues to play a central role in an individual's attitudes and activities within Puerto Rican society.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Sleep in old age: focus on gender differences.

A meta-analysis was conducted on 27 studies addressing gender differences on 31 indices of sleeping behavior of persons 58 years of age and older. All pertinent, original research articles published in the United States in the last decade were included. New findings were compared with summaries from earlier studies to complete a picture of current knowledge. Effect sizes were calculated for 23 variables related to sleep continuity, architecture, and pathology; and effect sizes were averaged across studies. Gender difference effect sizes were small to moderate, with men tending to show more objective changes from the patterns of healthy youthful sleep. Results underscore the importance of health providers having an understanding of gender and age in relation to sleep. Findings suggest the need to protect the lighter, more fragile sleep of the elderly; to encourage regularity in sleep patterns; and to use sleep-inducing medications with caution.

Aged↗

PubMed1992

Gender differences in schizophrenia in three cultures. Results of the WHO collaborative study on psychiatric disability.

As part of a systematic research project on the influence of gender factors on age at onset, symptomatology, and course of schizophrenia, data on gender differences in age at onset and symptomatology of schizophrenia from the WHO Collaborative Study "On Assessment and Reduction of Psychiatric Disability" were compared between seven research centres of three different cultural regions. Results on age at onset of five European centres confirmed the well known fact of an earlier onset in men. The earlier onset in women seen in Khartoum and Ankara could be attributed to patient selection because male/female differences in age at onset and male/female ratios in the various samples covary. In the Islamic centres no relevant gender differences in real age at onset and in symptomatology could be detected as probable causes of earlier hospitalisation of women. Major gender differences in symptomatology were found in the Balkan centres of Sofia and Zagreb with a high prevalence of delusional symptoms in women and depression in men. In Western Europe centres, nuclear schizophrenic symptoms were equally prevalent in either sex, while nonspecific symptoms like irritability and tiredness (more frequent in women) and maladaptive illness behaviours like alcohol abuse and social withdrawal (more frequent in men) differed between the sexes. Explanatory hypotheses and the implications of these results are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Gender differences in blood pressure control during a variety of behavioral stressors.

This study assessed gender differences in hemodynamic response patterns to behavioral stressors. In addition, the extent to which gender differences in cardiovascular reactivity were a function of the type of challenge was determined by employing tasks relying on stereotypically male areas of competence and a task relying on stereotypically female areas of competence. Sixteen female and 15 male graduate, medical or dental students were exposed to two speech tasks and two math tasks. While there were no significant differences in blood pressure reactivity between the genders, females exhibited significantly greater cardiac output increases across all tasks than males, while males tended to respond with greater increases in total peripheral resistance compared with females. Furthermore, during two of the tasks, significantly more females were classified as myocardial hyperreactors (based on increases in cardiac output), while significantly more males were vascular hyperreactors (based on increases in total peripheral resistance). A post hoc analysis also indicated an apparent association between oral contraceptive use and higher cardiovascular reactivity among the females tested. This association may have been a consequence of the decision to test all women during days 10 to 14 of the menstrual cycle when reactivity in women not using oral contraceptives may be suppressed.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Comment on large gender difference on death anxiety in Arab countries.

In the recent interesting and excellent article by Abdel-Khalek (2) the large mean difference between Death Anxiety Scale (6) for males and females in Lebanon was noted. I have also noted such large differences in other studies with subjects in Arab countries (1, 3, 4). These studies and that of Abdel-Khalek (2) provide a total of 12 gender differences in four different countries--Egypt, Kuwait, Lebanon, and Libya. Although these large gender differences would be notable in comparison to those of most studies in the United States or other English-speaking countries, the comparison was made with the differences provided by the two studies that presented norms and norm-like information (5, 8). These two studies contain 12 pairs of means for both sexes. Eight of the 12 Arab difference means were higher than the highest American difference mean (chi 2 = 12.00, p less than .01). The reason(s) for the larger gender differences on death anxiety are not known, but it appears reasonable to suggest that in countries in which there are large sex-role differences that likely include bravery, men would be more expected to report lower death anxiety than women. Cross-cultural and demographic research with the recently developed Death Depression Scale (7) would likely yield interesting findings.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

Assessing gender differences in college cigarette smoking intenders and nonintenders.

Variations in cigarette smoking patterns between men and women have led to the speculation that there may be systematic gender differences which account for these patterns. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether such gender differences exist in beliefs about the consequences of smoking, evaluations of those consequences, one's normative beliefs and one's motivations to comply among 221 college-age students. These subcomponents of Fishbein's model of behavioral intentions were tested with multivariate analysis procedures. Significant gender differences found in beliefs about the consequences of smoking, normative beliefs concerning smoking, and motivations to comply indicate that educational and treatment programs should address members of the two sexes in different ways.

Adult↗