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PubMedDate not supplied

Fourth-grade children's consumption of fruit and vegetable items available as part of school lunches is closely related to preferences.

OBJECTIVE: To use data from observations and interviews to document fourth-graders' preferences for, and consumption of, fruits compared to vegetables available as part of school lunches. DESIGN: Observations and interviews were conducted for studies regarding the impact of time interval between eating and reporting on the accuracy of children's school lunch recalls. SUBJECTS/SETTINGS: Children were recruited from up to 4 schools in one district during 3 school years; 63% agreed to participate. Randomly selected children (n = 237) were each observed eating school lunch once and were interviewed (regarding items eaten and preferences for items eaten) within 11/2 hours or the next morning. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Observed consumption of servings of items available as part of school lunch was recorded as none, taste, little bit, half, most, and all. Response options for preferences for items available as part of school lunch were liked not at all, a little, and a lot. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Mixed-model analysis of variance. RESULTS: Preferences were higher for fruits than vegetables. As preferences increased, consumption increased (P <.0001). Consumption of fruits compared to vegetables was similar after adjusting for preferences. IMPLICATIONS: Research is needed to understand how to increase children's preferences for vegetables as a means of increasing consumption.

Child↗

PubMed2007

Quality of food eaten in English primary schools: school dinners vs packed lunches.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the food and nutrient intakes of primary school children eating school dinners and packed lunches. SUBJECTS: Six-hundred and twenty-one 7-year-old children participating in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children in South West England. METHODS: Diet was assessed by 3-day unweighed food record. RESULTS: The composition of both types of school meals compared unfavourably with dietary guidelines. Intakes of energy, non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), calcium, iron, folate, retinol equivalents, zinc, copper, magnesium, iodine and riboflavin were too low, and intakes of total and saturated fat were too high. However, children who ate school dinners had higher lunchtime intakes of protein, starch, NSP and most vitamins and minerals and lower intakes of sugar (14.2 and 20.9% of energy in school dinners and packed lunches, respectively, P<0.001) and saturated fat (12.0 and 16.2%, P<0.001). Only around half of the recommended amount of fruit and vegetables was eaten by children having either type of school meal. There were also differences in the whole day's nutrient intake according to school meal type. Children eating packed lunches had lower daily intakes of potassium and zinc, and higher intakes of sugar and saturated fat. Differences in nutrient intake were independent of maternal education. CONCLUSIONS: The food and nutrient content of both school dinners and packed lunches needed improvement. However, the standard of food brought from home by children was, if anything, worse than that served at school. Recent moves to improve school dinners will need to be complemented by education about what constitutes a healthy packed lunch.

Child↗

PubMed2003

How well do children aged 5-7 years recall food eaten at school lunch?

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine the accuracy with which children aged 5 to 7 years were able to report the food eaten at a school lunch. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Two hundred and three children (103 boys, 100 girls) aged 5-7 years were recruited from three primary schools in Oxford. DESIGN: Trained investigators made observational records of the school dinner and packed lunch intakes of four or five children per session. Children were interviewed within two hours of finishing the lunchtime meal and asked to provide a free recall of their meal. When the child had completed the recall, non-directive prompts were used to assess if the child was able to remember anything else. Foods recalled were classified as matches (recalled food agreed with observation), omissions (failed to report a food observed) or phantoms (recalled food was not observed). RESULTS: The percentage of accurate recall was significantly higher (P<0.01) in children eating packed lunch (mean 70 +/- 29%) than in children consuming school dinners (mean 58 +/- 27% ). This difference may have been due to increased familiarity of foods in packed lunches. Leftovers were not readily reported in this age group. Prompts and cues enhanced recall by all children. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicated that there was a wide range in the ability of children aged 5-7 years to recall intake from a packed lunch and/or school dinner. This dietary assessment method is unlikely to be suitable at an individual level. Investigators using dietary recall to estimate food intake in children aged 5-7 years need to be aware of the limitations of this method.

Child↗

PubMed1986

Effects of lunch on selective and sustained attention.

Post-lunch impairments in performance efficiency have been found in both real-life settings and the laboratory. The first aim of the present experiment was to determine whether post-lunch changes in performance depend on eating a meal, or whether they are also found in subjects who abstain from eating. A second aim was to examine which aspects of performance are most likely to show post-lunch impairments. The results showed that the ability to maintain attention and react quickly to the appearance of a new stimulus was impaired following consumption of the meal. The extent of this effect did not vary with time on task, and was unaltered by changes in the time at which lunch was eaten. In contrast to this, the ability to resist distraction was unaffected by eating lunch. Other types of performance, such as movement time, varied as a function of time of day, but were not impaired by the meal.

Attention↗

PubMed2005

School lunch and snacking patterns among high school students: associations with school food environment and policies.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined associations between high school students' lunch patterns and vending machine purchases and the school food environment and policies. METHODS: A randomly selected sample of 1088 high school students from 20 schools completed surveys about their lunch practices and vending machine purchases. School food policies were assessed by principal and food director surveys. The number of vending machines and their hours of operation were assessed by trained research staff. RESULTS: Students at schools with open campus policies during lunchtime were significantly more likely to eat lunch at a fast food restaurant than students at schools with closed campus policies (0.7 days/week vs. 0.2 days/week, p < .001). Student snack food purchases at school were significantly associated with the number of snack machines at schools (p < .001) and policies about the types of food that can be sold. In schools with policies, students reported making snack food purchases an average of 0.5 +/- 1.1 days/week as compared to an average of 0.9 +/- 1.3 days/week in schools without policies (p < .001). In schools in which soft drink machines were turned off during lunch time, students purchased soft drinks from vending machines 1.4 +/- 1.6 days/week as compared to 1.9 +/- 1.8 days/week in schools in which soft drink machines were turned on during lunch (p = .040). CONCLUSION: School food policies that decrease access to foods high in fats and sugars are associated with less frequent purchase of these items in school among high school students. Schools should examine their food-related policies and decrease access to foods that are low in nutrients and high in fats and sugars.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1988

Lunch induces an increase in the plasma prolactin concentration, but not vasoactive intestinal peptides or cholecystokinin.

Ingestion of lunch is known to be associated with acute release of prolactin (PRL). The neuroendocrine mechanism of this release was examined by measuring changes in serum vasoactive intestinal peptides (VIP) and cholecystokinin (CCK) after the noon meal in six normal men. The serum PRL concentration was significantly increased (40% above the level before lunch) from 30 min to 1 h 45 min after beginning to eat. However, the ingestion of lunch had no remarkable effects on the plasma immunoreactive concentration of VIP and CCK. Thus the changes in the plasma concentration of these two gut-brain peptides did not coincided with acute PRL release after ingestion of lunch, suggesting either that these two gut-brain peptides are probably not involved in PRL release after lunch, or that the level of these two gut-brain peptides in the general circulation may not represent that in the hypophyseal portal plasma.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

[Evaluation of Japanese school lunch cooks' work by foreign researchers: an attempt to promote an effective discussion by presenting a video tape record].

The aim of this study was to collect and examine foreign researchers' evaluations of Japanese school lunch cooks' workload, risk of musculoskeletal disorders, and some related issues by means of video tape discussion method at international conferences. The author reported work-related musculoskeletal disorders of Japanese school lunch cooks' at three international conferences. Together with the presentation a video tape recorded at one school kitchen during working hours was shown and the participants at the conferences were asked to evaluate the workload and risks of the Japanese school lunch cooks in the form of a questionnaire. Out of 151 participants from 21 countries at three conferences, 86 participants from 18 countries answered the questionnaire. The median of the values for Japanese school cooks' workload, derived by the Visual Analogue Scale method ranging from 0 (easy) to 10 (severe), was 8.5. Concerning the possibility of occurrence of musculoskeletal problems, 83% of the respondents pointed out that the occurrence of musculoskeletal disorders was certain, and 17% of them estimated that it was probable. Out of 18 countries from which participants came from, 12 countries were serving meals at school, and school lunch cooks in these 12 countries had similar occupational problems to those in Japan, such as musculoskeletal disorders, skin disorders and injuries, etc. The participants also pointed out that Japanese school lunch cooks were exposed to various problems, i.e., excessive workloads for women, and too few replacements of manual work by machinery. On the other hand, the cleanliness of the school kitchen, quality of meals, and conscientious cooking work were evaluated as very high. There were 36 researchers who asked for a copy of the video tape in order to use it in the education of industrial health personnel, medical students, and so on. These results showed the same tendency as Japanese researchers have found over the past 16 years. The video tape discussion method is proved to be useful in deepening mutual understanding at international conferences.

Bone Diseases↗

PubMed1980

Alternate lunch patterns in high schools. IV. Nutritive value.

The nutritive value of lunches in forty-eight high schools was assessed using alternate methods of menu planning. Using Type A, Basic 4, and free-choice patterns, the nutrient levels in lunches consumed were not significantly different from those of lunches using the Type A "offer vs. serve" pattern. For boys, lunches as consumed were significantly below the goals for calories, thiamin, and iron in all groups. For girls, lunches as consumed were significantly below the goal only for iron.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Levels of Cd, Hg, As, Cu, Mn, and Zn in Japanese restaurant and box lunches.

Intakes of selected elements from restaurant and box lunches in Shiga Prefecture (Japan) were investigated in 1993 and 1994, respectively. Average intakes of these elements from restaurant and box lunches were, respectively, 14 and 12 micrograms for Cd, 4.6 and 4.5 micrograms for Hg, 85 and 91 micrograms for As, 461 and 561 micrograms for Cu, 1268 and 1235 micrograms for Mn, and 3612 and 2688 micrograms of Zn. There were no great differences between the intakes from the restaurant lunches in 1993 and the box lunches in 1994. The proportion of elements from the lunches constituted 25-38% of the daily intake for Cd, As, Mn, and Zn and 51-65% of the daily intake for Hg.

Arsenic↗

PubMed1996

Is the post-lunch dip in sprinting performance associated with the timing of food ingestion?

To detect whether the drop in performance around lunch has any direct association with the time of food ingestion, a group of 8 sprinters were studied for 5 consecutive Saturdays. On each testing day, the times achieved during 80 meter sprints performed at eight different times of the day separated by 2 hour intervals were recorded. The 1st and 4th testing days, had identical sleep and mealtime schedules, and were therefore considered "control days", while on the 2nd and 3rd testing days the schedule was brought forward ("advanced") or backward ("delayed") by 2 hours respectively. On the 5th testing day the sleep-wake cycle was brought forward 2 hours without changing the mealtime schedule. A post-lunch dip (PLD) was detected on all testing days although at different times. No significant differences in performance were observed between days 1 and 4 while there were differences in performance during the other testing days. It is worth pointing out that PLD occurred at about 15:00 h on the control days, with significant differences between the 2nd (p < 0.05) and 3rd days (p < 0.05), and with the deterioration in performance starting at 15:00 h on the 3rd day despite the fact that lunch had been served at 16:00 h. In conclusion, PLD does not appear to be directly linked to the time of lunch, although lunch itself could potentiate its effects. It is also worth mentioning the fact that this deteriorating effect does not occur after any other meals of the day.

Adult↗

PubMed1988

The influence of meal composition on post-lunch changes in performance efficiency and mood.

Effects of meal composition on post-lunch changes in performance efficiency and mood were examined. Lunch had an effect on mood, with subjects feeling more lethargic, feeble, clumsy, muzzy, dreamy, bored and mentally slow after the meal. However, the composition of the lunch did not influence this effect. High starch and high sugar meals slowed reactions to visual stimuli presented in the periphery, whereas consumption of a high protein lunch was associated with greater susceptibility to distraction from stimuli close to the target. These results show that protein and carbohydrate meals affect different aspects of attention. That is, the behavioural effects of a meal depend both on its composition and on the particular nature of the activity being carried out.

Achievement↗

PubMed2005

The post-lunch dip in performance.

For some performance variables, and some individuals, there is a dip in performance during the midafternoon hours (referred to as the post-lunch dip) that is linked to an increase in sleep propensity at that time of day. The post-lunch dip is a real phenomenon that can occur even when the individual has had no lunch and is unaware of the time of day. This dip has its roots in human biology, and may be linked to the size of the 12-hour harmonic in the circadian system. It is certainly exacerbated by a high-carbohydrate lunch, and may be more likely to occur in extreme morning-type individuals.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Factors associated with the offering and sale of competitive foods and school lunch participation.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to identify factors that predict offering and sale of competitive foods, as well as factors that predict average daily participation in school lunch. DESIGN: Surveys were distributed to 271 school foodservice directors in a random sample of high schools in Pennsylvania that were selected to be representative of the entire population of high schools in Pennsylvania based on chosen demographic characteristics. SUBJECTS: Two hundred twenty-eight school foodservice directors (84%) returned surveys. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Descriptive and multiple regression analyses were done using SPSS version 11.5 (2002, SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL). RESULTS: Percentage of students eligible for free or reduced-price meals and timing of lunch were significant predictors of a la carte sales. Enrollment was negatively associated with number of vending machines per student. The number of less nutritious food items offered in vending machines and existence of soft drink machines owned by soft drink companies, for which the school receives a percent of sales, both predicted number of vending machines per student. Enrollment was inversely related to average daily participation in school lunch. The percentage of students eligible for free/reduced-price meals and enforcement of a policy prohibiting parents or students from bringing food into the cafeteria from local fast-food establishments positively predicted average daily participation in school lunch. CONCLUSIONS: These findings may be useful to school wellness councils in developing wellness policies as mandated by the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004, as well as in structuring school environments to promote more healthful food choices by students.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Low-fat school lunch programs: achieving acceptance.

A study was carried out to determine whether hands-on classroom experience with low-fat foods would increase children's acceptance of those foods in the school's lunch program. The 9-month project took place at an elementary school in upstate New York. Half of the classrooms served as the intervention group and received classroom experience with new foods; the other half served as the control group and received no classroom experience. Consumption measurements of 16 new foods, introduced at approximately 2-week intervals, were taken for all students who ate school lunches. Compared with children in the control group, those in the intervention group ate significantly more of the new foods when they were offered in the lunch program. The study demonstrated that experiential learning about food in the classroom is an effective way to gain acceptance of diverse, low-fat foods in the school lunch program.

Child↗

PubMed1994

Randomized intervention to increase children's selection of low-fat foods in school lunches.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine whether children would increase their selection of low-fat foods in school lunches if these foods were labeled on the menu and parents were notified of their availability. METHODS: The 16 elementary schools in the Bellevue (Washington) School District were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups. Participants were the students eating the school lunch--an average of 2445 students per day, of whom one third received free or reduced-price lunches. In all schools, one of the two daily lunch entrees was low in fat (< or = 30% of calories from fat). After a 5-month baseline period, eight schools received a 4-month intervention. The monthly menus carried home by students began to indicate the low-fat entree and to compare the fat content of both entrees. In the first month, parents in the intervention schools (2329 households) received a mailing with a copy of the menu, an informational pamphlet on dietary fat, and a letter that described the menu changes and asked the parents to encourage their children to select low-fat entrees. A follow-up telephone survey was performed in one school 1 month after the intervention mailing to assess the recall and impact of the intervention. The main outcome, based on 249,861 student meal selections, was the proportion of students who selected the low-fat entree, and the unit of analysis was the school. RESULTS: At baseline, there was little difference between intervention and control schools in the percentage of children choosing the low-fat entree (31.5% vs 30.8%). During the intervention, there was an increase in low-fat entree selection in the intervention schools compared with the control schools (35.5% vs 32.2%; p = 0.03). Of 221 parents surveyed, 71% recalled the mailing, 53% remembered that there were now low-fat entrees on the menu, and 10% reported that, after the mailing, they asked their child to choose a low-fat entree.

Child↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Accuracy of fourth-graders' dietary recalls of school breakfast and school lunch validated with observations: in-person versus telephone interviews.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the accuracy of children's dietary recalls of school breakfast and school lunch validated with observations and obtained during in-person versus telephone interviews. DESIGN: Each child was observed eating school breakfast and school lunch and was interviewed that evening about that day's intake. SETTING: Ten elementary schools. PARTICIPANTS: A sample of fourth-graders was randomly selected within race (black, white) and gender strata, observed, and interviewed in person (n = 33) or by telephone (n = 36). MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURED: Rates for omissions (items observed but not reported) and intrusions (items reported but not observed) were calculated to determine accuracy for reporting items. A measure of total inaccuracy was calculated to determine inaccuracy for reporting items and amounts combined. ANALYSIS: Analysis of variance; chi-square. RESULTS: Interview type (in person, telephone) did not significantly affect recall accuracy. For omission rate, intrusion rate, and total inaccuracy, means were 34%, 19%, and 4.6 servings for in-person recalls and 32%, 16%, and 4.3 servings for telephone recalls of school breakfast and school lunch. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: The accuracy of children's recalls of school breakfast and school lunch is not significantly different whether obtained in person or by telephone. Whether interviewed in person or by telephone, children reported only 67% of items observed; furthermore, 17% of items reported were not observed.

Child↗

PubMed1996

Fat substitution and food intake: effect of replacing fat with sucrose polyester at lunch or evening meals.

The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of replacement of fat by sucrose polyester (SPE) within a lunch or evening meal on subsequent energy intake and appetite control. The 2 x 2 design was intended to examine the effect on appetite of reducing the total energy and fat content of a meal (lunch or dinner) by replacement of natural fat with 55 g SPE. The effects were monitored by measuring motivation to eat or actual food consumption during the remainder of the test day (day 1) and throughout the following day (day 2). The 2 x 2 design yielded four conditions which were a control meal (5192 kJ, 73.2 g fat) and a fat-replaced meal (3305 kJ, 54.6 g SPE, 24 g fat) at midday (lunch) or in the early evening (dinner). No significant differences were seen in ad lib. energy intake after the test meals on day 1 or day 2. Certain differences were detected in fat intake on day 2 but these did not suggest nutrient compensation in response to the fat replacement. Subjective assessment of motivation to eat did not indicate that the fat-reduced meal had a weaker satiating efficiency than the control meal. A reduction in fat content, using fat replacement, did not reduce the satiating efficiency of a test meal given at lunch or dinner. No energy or macronutrient compensation occurred following the reduction in energy or fat intake during the rest of the test day or during the whole of the next day.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The influence of the glycaemic index of breakfast and lunch on substrate utilisation during the postprandial periods and subsequent exercise.

The present study investigated the effects of mixed high-carbohydrate (CHO) meals (breakfast and lunch) with different glycaemic indices (GI) on substrate metabolism during rest throughout the postprandial periods and during subsequent exercise. Nine recreationally active males completed two trials, high glycaemic index (HGI) and low glycaemic index (LGI), separated by 7 d in a randomised crossover design. In each trial, participants consumed breakfast and lunch, both of which were followed by a 3 h resting postprandial period. Following this, participants completed a 60 min run at 70 % of V O2max. The plasma glucose and serum insulin concentrations following both meals were significantly higher in the HGI trial than in the LGI trial (P<0.05). Serum insulin concentrations remained higher throughout the postprandial period following lunch in the HGI trial compared with the LGI trial (P<0.05). The total amount of fat oxidised was higher during the 3 h rest following lunch in the LGI trial than in the HGI trial (P<0.01) and subsequently CHO oxidation was lower (P<0.005). No significant differences in substrate utilisation were observed throughout the subsequent run. At 45 and 60 min, plasma glucose concentrations were higher in the LGI trial v. the HGI trial (P<0.05). The results of the present study provide further support that the GI concept can be successfully applied to mixed meals. The results also suggest that meals composed of LGI CHO may be more beneficial for maintaining a favourable metabolic milieu during the postprandial periods. Furthermore, during subsequent exercise, plasma glucose concentrations were better maintained following the LGI CHO meals.

Adult↗