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PubMed2005

Spending on medicines in Israel in an international context.

BACKGROUND: Like most developed countries, in the last decade Israel's healthcare system has been subject to cost-containing measures in the drug sector. OBJECTIVES: To provide comparative information in an international context on the level of outpatient drug expenditures in Israel, both total and those publicly financed, and to analyze how these have changed with time during the last decade. METHODS: Using definitions of the OECD (Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development), internationally comparable data on total expenditure and public expenditure on medicines in Israel are provided. The Israeli estimates are based on data from the Ministry of Health audited reports of financial activities of the health management organizations and from the family expenditure surveys carried out by the Central Bureau of Statistics. Per capita total and public expenditures in Israel are analyzed over time, as are their share of national expenditure on health and of gross domestic product. Israel expenditures are then compared with those for individual member countries of the OECD, as well as a 21 country average, from 1992 to 2002. RESULTS: Analysis of the Israeli expenditure data shows a considerable reduction in growth of per capita total and public expenditures on medicines since 1997. Growth in the share of total drug expenditure of NEH and of GDP has also been constrained since 1997. In an international context, per capita expenditure on medicines in Israel, particularly what is publicly financed, is one of the lowest. Furthermore, its share of NEH and GDP is also very low compared to other countries. This substantive gap in spending on medicines between Israel and other countries has increased since 1997. CONCLUSIONS: Israel, a medium-income country with a lower than average level of expenditure on health compared to OECD countries, has a particularly low level of expenditure on medicines. Whereas the share of health expenditure of GDP in Israel is similar to the international average, the share of drug expenditure of GDP is well below the average. In addition to structural and longer-term factors contributing to Israel's low per capita spending on medicines, such as the young population and the apparently low level of actual prices paid by most institutional purchasers, recent years are witness to the growing impact of National Health Insurance budgetary pressures on HMOs as well as continual increases in prescription cost sharing by patients. The impact is felt both on the demand side (higher copayments, administrative and prescribing restrictions) and perhaps more crucially on the supply side (price competition, mainly from generics). Substantial extra public funding for the addition of new drugs to the NHI basket in recent years has had no overall impact on these longer-term spending patterns.

Developed Countries↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Population growth to put pressure on some food supplies.

Continued high population growth in developing countries is likely to lead to intense pressure to produce more rice, according to estimates from the Manila-based International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). Ms. Mercedita Sombilla, a research scientist with IRRI, said that the projected increase in Asia's population will be the major force in accelerating demand for rice. According to various issues of the ESCAP Population Data Sheet, the population of the region will have increased from 3.3 billion in 1995 to almost 4.6 billion in 2020. The greatest growth in demand is expected to come from the lower-income countries of Asia, such as Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Philippines, and Viet Nam, she said. However, in terms of overall food supplies, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) estimates that food supplies will be sufficient. "Expecting reasonably strong productivity growth to be sustainable, no global food crisis seems likely to occur" between now and 2020, the organization stated in its report entitled "The World in 2020: Towards a New Global Age".

Asia↗

PubMed1999

Health insurance and productivity.

AIM: To provide a conceptual understanding of the basic relationship between health insurance and overall economic productivity, and to look at the human development index as a proxy for the quality of human capital. METHODS: Economic data and data related to human development in Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries, including Croatia, were compared to the European Union (EU) average. Data were selected out of databases provided by the International Monetary Fund, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, and the United Nations. Income and growth rates were related to the EU averages. The human development index was used to compare the level of the average achievements in the longevity of life, knowledge, and quality of living in CEE countries. RESULTS: Relative to the EU-average, human development is lagging behind in CEE countries. Considering the world as a benchmark regarding human development, 8 out of 13 CEE countries exceed the world. However, all CEE countries have 3-28% lower human development than the industrialized countries. CONCLUSIONS: The specific challenge for transition countries is how to adopt strategies to translate economic progress into health and social gains through reliable institutions, among them social health insurance bodies. The institutions and the provision of social health insurance are particularly challenged at a turning point when transition in terms of macroeconomic stabilization, along with the consolidated organization and financing of social and health insurance schemes, is accommodated to a business cycle-driven market economy.

Economics↗

PubMed1997

Health care spending, delivery, and outcome in developed countries: a cross-national comparison.

This study examines the trend of health care spending, availability and use of medical services, and aggregate health outcome of the 24 industrialized member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Major differences between the United States and other OECD countries are highlighted and discussed. The results of the study demonstrate that, over the past four decades, the United States has been spending more and accomplishing less when compared with other industrialized nations. The United States needs to learn from the successful experience of other nations. Redesigning the system of health care delivery in the United States may be the only viable option to improve the quality of health care.

Aged↗

PubMed2000

Is there a link between pharmaceutical consumption and improved health in OECD countries?

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to determine whether there is a measurable health return associated with high pharmaceutical consumption in a sample of developed countries. DESIGN AND SETTING: The study focused on the production of health, disaggregating healthcare into pharmaceuticals and other healthcare. We controlled for wealth and lifestyle factors. The sample consisted of 21 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries and the measure of pharmaceutical consumption used was the best available for a large number of OECD countries. We proxied health with life expectancies at birth, at age 40, and age 60. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES AND RESULTS: Pharmaceutical consumption had a positive and statistically significant effect on remaining life expectancy at age 40 and 60 years (significant at the 0.10 and 0.05 level, respectively, based on a 2-tailed test), although the effect on life expectancy at birth was small and not significant. Sensitivity analysis showed that these results were generally robust. A significant effect of pharmaceutical consumption on infant mortality was not demonstrated and results of the infant mortality model were very sensitive to small changes. CONCLUSIONS: Increased pharmaceutical consumption helps improve mortality outcomes, especially for those at middle age and older.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

The role of multilateral institutions.

In line with its mission of alleviating poverty through support for environmentally and socially sustainable economic development, The World Bank (along with some other multilateral development banks) is working to help developing countries capture a share of the emerging global market in greenhouse-gas-emissions reductions ('carbon trading'). Under the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Joint Implementation instrument and the Clean Development Mechanism now provide an opening for substantial international resource transfers and potential for supporting sustainable development through the transfer of cleaner technologies or sustainable forestry and agro-forestry practices. For example, carbon sequestration represents a non-extractive non-consumptive sustainable use of living natural resources that can be incorporated within a multiple-use 'integrated ecosystem management' approach. The World Bank initiated the Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF) in April 2000, to help spur the development of a global carbon market and to 'learn by doing' how to use carbon-purchase transactions across a range of energy-sector technologies (and some forestry applications) to achieve environmentally credible and cost-effective emissions reductions that benefit developing countries and economies in transition. Building on the success of the PCF ($145 million raised from public and private-sector investors), The World Bank expects to launch two new funds in 2002: the Biocarbon Fund and the Community Development Carbon Fund. These funds will target synergies between carbon markets and objectives such as biodiversity conservation, combating desertification and small-scale community-driven development. Experience from the PCF shows that developing countries can have a comparative advantage in supplying this global market, as emissions reductions can be achieved in developing countries in the range of $3-$5 per ton of CO(2) equivalent, compared with a marginal abatement cost of $10-$15 per ton of CO(2) equivalent in most countries within the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. However, realizing this economic potential over the next decade, and targeting the market to the rural poor, will require substantial assistance with project development and government legal and institutional capacity building. Specific needs include raising awareness of the potential of carbon markets at all levels (particularly in energy and land-use sectors), clarifying property rights, particularly in the case of communally held land and resources, ensuring the existence of an attractive investment climate, eliminating policies that create perverse incentives and constraints, and mitigating logistical, political and 'reputational' risks that could deter private-sector investors. It will also be necessary to find ways to reconcile the short-term needs of the rural poor and the typically long-term revenue stream associated with carbon sequestration.

Air Pollution↗

PubMed2000

The costs of rheumatoid arthritis: an international long-term view.

OBJECTIVES: To review the literature on the measurable direct and indirect costs of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in industrialized countries from a societal perspective and to develop a template for international use. METHODS: A literature search using MEDLINE and other sources identified 153 relevant published articles, press releases, and so forth on the costs of RA and rheumatism from the major Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in English and other languages. Sixty-eight publications provide some economic data for analysis and are included in the bibliography. Twelve publications provide sufficiently detailed and robust information for inclusion in country overview tables. The concept of varied costs at different disease stages measured by years since diagnosis and Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ) scores is used to guide rational decisions in the allocation of scarce health care resources. RESULTS: Direct costs increase overproportionately during the course of the disease. The most important driver of direct costs is hospitalization, especially in moderate and severe RA. Costs of medication represent a comparatively small proportion of direct costs. Indirect costs caused by work disability can be substantially higher than direct costs, particularly in working-age patients. The total costs of RA to society, and the different cost components such as direct and indirect costs, are broadly comparable in industrialized countries by their order of magnitude. Major confounding factors for international comparison are different study methodologies and patient samples. CONCLUSIONS: The cost template developed in this article can be used to estimate the likely costs of RA to society for industrialized countries. It probably will underestimate indirect costs because of their incomplete coverage in the studies examined. A long-term perspective is needed for chronic diseases such as RA to assess the future effects of early interventions. Treatment in the early stages of RA that effectively reduces long-term disability has the potential to save substantial costs to society.

Arthritis, Rheumatoid↗

PubMed2000

Determinants of hospital utilization: the situation in Israel and selected countries.

BACKGROUND: In 1995 hospital costs constituted about 42% of the health expenditures in Israel. Although this proportion remained stable over the last decade, hospital discharge rates per 1,000 population increased, while hospitalization days per 1,000 population and average length of stay declined. OBJECTIVE: To gain an insight into the forces behind these changes, we compared the trends in hospital utilization in Israel with those in 21 developed countries with available data. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Our data were derived from The "Hospitals and Day Care Units, 1995" report by the Health Information and Computer Services of the Israel Ministry of Health, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Health Data, 98. We examined the numbers of acute care hospital beds, of patients on dialysis and of doctors' consultations, health expenditures and age structure of the population in 1995 or closest year with available data, as well as changes in DRs, HDs and ALOS between 1976 and 1995. RESULTS: In Israel the DRs increased from 130 in 1976 to 177 in 1995 (36%), HDs declined from 992 to 818 (18%), and ALOS declined from 7.60 to 4.51 days (41%). Relative to other countries, in 1995 Israel had the lowest ALOS; low HDs similar to those in the UK, Portugal, Spain, the USA and Sweden; and intermediate DRs similar to those in Belgium, Germany, Sweden and Australia. The number of acute care beds per 1,000 population was directly related to HDs (r = 0.954, P = 0.000) and to DRs (r = 0.419, P = 0.052). Health expenditures (% of the gross national product) correlated with the number of patients on dialysis per 1,000,000 population (r = 0.743, P = 0.000). Between 1976 and 1995, HDs and ALOS declined in most countries, however the trends in DRs varied from an increase by 119% in the UK to a decline by 29% in Canada. CONCLUSIONS AND HYPOTHESES: The increase in DRs in Israel from 1976 to 1995 was shared by many but not all countries. This variability may be related to differences in trends in local practice norms and in available hospital beds. If the number of patients on dialysis is a valid index for use of expensive treatment modalities, the correlation of health expenditures with the number of patients on dialysis suggests that the use of expensive technology is a more important determinant of health care costs than the age of the population or hospital utilization. Since the use of expensive technology is highest during the first few days in hospital, decisions about health care policy should consider the possibility that the savings incurred by a further decline in HDs and ALOS may be offset by a possible increase in per diem hospital costs and in health care expenditures after discharge from hospital.

Australia↗

PubMed2003

Development of quantitative vitellogenin-ELISAs for fish test species used in endocrine disruptor screening.

The yolk protein precursor vitellogenin (Vtg) in plasma has proved to be a simple and sensitive biomarker for assessing exposure of fish to environmental estrogens. Within international bodies such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) work is ongoing to develop screening and testing programmes for endocrine disrupting effects of new chemicals, and in the focus of this development are the fish test species common carp (Cyprinus carpio), fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), zebrafish (Danio rerio) and Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). In this study we have developed quantitative enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) for Vtg in common carp/fathead minnow, zebrafish and Japanese medaka. The assays were developed using a combination of monoclonal and polyclonal fish Vtg antibodies in a sandwich format, using stabilized Vtg from the test species as a standard. The carp Vtg ELISA has a working range of 1-63 ng/mL, a minimal detection limit of 0.6 ng/mL, and may also be used for quantification of Vtg in fathead minnow. In fathead minnow whole-body homogenate samples, the practical detection limit is 400 ng/mL due to the matrix effect. The zebrafish Vtg ELISA has a working range of 0.5-63 ng/mL, a minimal detection limit of 0.4 ng/mL, and a practical detection limit of 200 ng/mL in whole-body homogenate samples. The medaka Vtg ELISA has a working range of 0.25-16 ng/mL, a minimal detection limit of 0.1 ng/mL, and a practical detection limit of 125 ng/mL in whole-body homogenate samples. The intra- and inter-assay variations were below 20% for all assays. The assays were evaluated with sets of representative samples spanning the wide dynamic range of Vtg-levels found in fish exposed to environmental estrogens, and all three assays are currently undergoing international inter-laboratory validation.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

A mediator-type biosensor as a new approach to biochemical oxygen demand estimation.

A novel biosensor for the determination of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) was developed using potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) [HCF(III)] as a mediator. The sensor element consists of a three-electrode system, with both working and counter electrodes compactly integrated as a disposable using etching and electroplating processes. Pseudomonas fluorescens biovar V (isolated from a wastewater treatment plant) was immobilized on the surface of the working electrode using poly(vinyl alcohol)-quaternized stilbazol (PVA-SbQ) photopolymer gel. Synthetic wastewater described by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) was used as a standard solution instead of glucose-glutamic acid synthetic wastewater. The conditions of amperometric measurement were optimized at +600 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl) operating potential, namely 40 mM HCF(III) in a 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) at 20 degrees C. The sensor response was linear from 15 up to 200 mg O l-1 BOD. The response time was 15 min at 200 mg O l-1 BOD. To demonstrate the wide metabolic range of activity of the sensor, the sensor response to 14 substances in four categories of organic compounds was investigated. Further, it was shown that the response of this BOD sensor was not influenced in samples with low concentrations of dissolved oxygen under the measuring conditions used. For real wastewaters, the BOD values were determined using the sensor and compared favorably with those determined by the conventional BOD5 method.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2005

Isotachophoretic determination of carboxylic acids in biodegradation samples.

In the current study a method of isotachophoretic separation of selected carboxylic acids was developed. The method was used for the determination of carboxylated oligo(ethylene glycol)s and their degradation products in biodegradation tests of PEG 250 DA [a mixture of dicarboxylated oligo(ethylene glycol)s]. Two tests were performed in the studies: the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) screening test and the river water die-away test. Both the biodegradation tests proved relatively fast biodegradation of the studied compounds. In the OECD screening test the biodegradation was faster than in the river water die-away test which can be ascribed to a higher concentration of bacteria in the biodegradation liquor. The minimal sample pretreatment and relatively low cost of analysis by the isotachophoretic method used here make it a good alternative to existing methods of carboxylic acids analysis.

Biodegradation, Environmental↗

PubMed2001

EUROPOEM, a predictive occupational exposure database for registration purposes of pesticides.

For registration of agricultural pesticides, the risks for humans, animals, and the environment must be determined. The risk assessment is based on an appraisal of the levels of exposure and the hazards of the active substance(s) in the plant protection product, that is, the agricultural pesticide. Funded by the European Commission (AIR3 CT93-1370), the EUROPOEM database has been developed by a group of experts, representing governments, industry, and academia. The currently available exposure database reflects exposure to operators (mixer/loaders and applicators). The EUROPOEM approach is based on a harmonized protocol for conduct of field studies of operator exposure (presently published as an Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] Guidance Document) and a tiered approach to exposure and risk assessment. The database is constructed from exposure data obtained in representative field studies. These field studies are considered according to criteria reflecting the quality of documentation, study design, adequate methodology, number of replicates, and QA/QC elements, for use of the inhalation and dermal exposure data. The resulting exposure data were combined according to comparable use scenarios. From the resulting databases typical surrogate potential exposure values have been obtained, which are determined by their use for either acute or chronic health effects, and the size of the database. For large databases (over 50-100 data points), from many different field studies (10 or more), the 75th percentile is taken if the exposure is considered leading to chronic effects. For smaller databases, a more conservative 90th percentile is taken as surrogate value, or none at all for very small databases (15-20 or less data points from 3 or less different field studies). The choice for the 75th percentile is based on the assumed or observed lognormal distribution of the exposure data, as being the most relevant typical value for long-term effects, since the 75th percentile of log-normal distributions is nominally very similar to a calculated arithmetic mean (AM). The AM, as such however, is irrelevant for log-normal distributions.

Agriculture↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Developments in health care costs--an update.

During 1993, an estimated $910 billion was spent on health care in the United States. Health care expenditures, as a whole, continued to show a slower rate of growth in 1993 than in 1992. The medical care Consumer Price Index rose 6.0 percent in 1993 and is projected to increase only about 5.7 percent in 1994. HMO enrollment increased 7.3 percent between 1991 and 1992, with an estimated 41.4 million participants. In terms of per capita spending, health care expenditures in the United States are more than twice the average for the 24 industrial nations that make up the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). As the health care reform debates continue, evidence indicates that market forces are beginning to exert an influence on the health care sector of the economy. Further, regardless of what final form health care reform will take, the role of managed care will probably continue to increase.

Canada↗

PubMed1993

Population, development, and the environment: trends and key issues in the developed countries.

The quantitative relationship between environmental degradation (pollution) and the factors that influence it can be expressed by the identity: Pollution = population x (good/population) x (pollution/good), where "affluence" is expressed as good/population and the technology of production as pollution/good. Annual data for the emission of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides from mobile sources and for the use of pesticides and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer from agriculture, for the member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the United States, were analyzed to determine the relative change in the three factors over the period 1970-1987. In each case the considerable variation in pollutant emissions among the different countries is most closely related to the concomitant change in the technology factor (pollution/good). In contrast, there is much less variation among the countries in the population and "affluence" factors, which are consequently uncorrelated with the variation in pollutant emissions. The data show that the change in production technology is by far the most important of the several factors responsible for changes in pollution emission.

Cross-Cultural Comparison↗

PubMed2006

Improvement of the applicability of ecotoxicological tests with earthworms, springtails, and plants for the assessment of metals in natural soils.

The environmental risk assessment of metals in the soil compartment is based mainly on tests performed in Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) artificial soil, but ecologically, the use of natural soils would be more relevant. In this contribution, the reproduction and growth of three standard species (an earthworm, a collembolan, and a dicotyledonous plant, respectively) was evaluated in nine natural soils (covering a wide range of pH values, organic matter content, texture, and so on) and in OECD artificial soil. Afterward, the effects of the model chemical zinc nitrate were assessed in all soils that were identified as being suitable for these species. The test results indicate that the toxicity of zinc nitrate can be higher by a factor of approximately four compared to artificial soil for invertebrates (earthworms and collembolans), whereas plants are only slightly more sensitive in some natural soils than in artificial soil. When comparing the different endpoints, it could be confirmed that the median effective concentration (EC50) is the most robust compared to the highly uncertain 10% effective concentration. Decreasing toxicity of zinc nitrate to collembolans was significantly correlated with an increase in soil pH but not with cation exchange capacity (CEC) or organic carbon (OC) content. No significant correlation was found between the toxicity of zinc nitrate to earthworms or plants and soil pH, CEC, or OC content. Possible consequences of the results are discussed, such as the testing of natural soils in addition to the OECD artificial soil or the inclusion of an additional safety factor to use the EC50 in current risk assessment schemes focusing on no-observed-effect concentrations.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Eight Americas: new perspectives on U.S. health disparities.

The Eight Americas Study divides the U.S. population into eight distinct groups with different epidemiologic patterns and mortality experience. The Eight Americas are Asians (America 1), below-median-income whites living in the Northland (America 2), middle America (America 3), poor whites living in Appalachia and the Mississippi Valley (America 4), Native Americans living on reservations in the West (America 5), black middle-America (America 6), poor blacks living in the rural South (America 7), and blacks living in high-risk urban environments (America 8). Life expectancy for males in America 8 is 21 years lower than life expectancy for females in America 1. For males, the gap between America 1 and America 8, 16.1 years, is as large as the gap between Iceland with the highest male life expectancy in the world and Bangladesh. Even in Americas 5, 6, 7, and 8, U.S. child mortality is in the middle of the range defined by the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. For young and middle-aged males and females, however, mortality experience in the disadvantaged Americas is up to two times worse than the worst OECD country. The enormous excess of young and middle-aged mortality is largely due to chronic disease death. Based on the World Health Organization Comparative Risk Assessment project, we expect the major risks in the United States to be tobacco, alcohol, obesity, blood pressure, and cholesterol. Risk factor analysis using Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data for the Eight Americas suggests that the pattern for tobacco, alcohol, and obesity is distinct for each America. Currently available data in the public domain do not provide an adequate basis to assess levels of blood pressure and cholesterol in the Eight Americas. To tackle disparities in the United States, public health will need to increase its focus on chronic diseases in young and middle-aged Americans. In particular, if blood pressure and cholesterol are confirmed as major contributors to current mortality patterns, innovative strategies such as the Polypill and unique individual and population approaches need to be explored.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Ensuring quality of in vitro alternative test methods: issues and answers.

Many in vitro and ex vivo methods have been developed or are under development to reduce or replace animal usage in toxicity tests. Consistent with the goal of obtaining scientifically sound test data for hazard and risk assessment of chemicals, changes are being made in current policies and procedures to facilitate the acceptance of data developed using these methods. National and international organizations are developing policies and standards for scientific practice to assure quality in implementation of in vitro methods. Consensus is developing in the scientific community for the quality control measures needed for in vitro methods; including appropriate controls, data reporting elements, and benchmarks to be identified in test guidelines so that the potential risks of chemicals can be reviewed and reliably assessed. Additional guidance to the OECD's Good Laboratory Practice principles [Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (. Advisory Document of the Working Group on Good Laboratory Practice: The Application of the Principles of GLP to in vitro Studies. OECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring Number 14 (ENV/JM/MONO(2004)26). Paris, France] will help to ensure that in vitro tests used for regulatory purposes are reproducible, credible, and acceptable. Generic test guidelines incorporating performance standards are being written to allow acceptance of proprietary test methods by regulatory agencies and to provide assurance that any in vitro system performs over time in a manner that is consistent with the test system as it was originally validated.

Animal Testing Alternatives↗

PubMed2001

The TestSmart-HPV Program--development of an integrated approach for testing high production volume chemicals.

The TestSmart program was developed in response to the High Production Volume Chemical Challenge, a voluntary initiative under which chemical producers provide basic toxicity data on chemicals produced in greater than one million pounds annually. Specifically, under the Challenge, chemical producers will generate data as needed to complete the Screening Information Data Set (SIDS), as defined by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). The TestSmart program is a collaborative effort of the Johns Hopkins Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing, the Environmental Defense Fund, Carnegie-Mellon University, and the University of Pittsburgh. The goal of the TestSmart program is to provide a humane and efficient approach to collecting SIDS data. The program has two objectives, one immediate and the other more long term. The immediate objective has been to make recommendations to reduce the number of animals used in collecting SIDS data under the Challenge. This was accomplished, through a group process, by examining the current status of alternative methods for SIDS endpoints and by providing an assessment of the "state of readiness" of current and potential future alternatives. The long-term objective is to provide a model for other programs to follow the TestSmart concept of a more efficient and humane approach to obtain toxicological data of interest to regulators and the public.

Animal Testing Alternatives↗