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PubMed1991

Muscle glycogenolysis. Regulation of the cyclic interconversion of phosphorylase a and phosphorylase b.

Regulation of glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle is dependent on a network of interacting enzymes and effectors that determine the relative activity of the enzyme phosphorylase. That enzyme is activated by phosphorylase kinase and inactivated by protein phosphatase-1 in a cyclic process of covalent modification. We present evidence that the cyclic interconversion is subject to zero-order ultrasensitivity, and the effect is responsible for the "flash" activation of phosphorylase by Ca2+ in the presence of glycogen. The zero-order effect is observable either by varying the amounts of kinase and phosphatase or by modifying the ratio of their activities by a physiological effector, protein phosphatase inhibitor-2. The sensitivity of the system is enhanced in the presence of the phosphorylase limit dextrin of glycogen which lowers the Km of phosphorylase kinase for phosphorylase. The in vitro experimental results are examined in terms of physiological conditions in muscle, and it is shown that zero-order ultrasensitivity would be more pronounced under the highly compartmentalized conditions found in that tissue. The sensitivity of this system to effector changes is much greater than that found for allosteric enzymes. Furthermore, the sensitivity enhancement increases more rapidly than energy consumption (ATP) as the phosphorylase concentration increases. Energy effectiveness is shown to be a possible evolutionary factor in favor of the development of zero-order ultrasensitivity in compartmentalized systems.

Animals↗

PubMed1983

The phosphorylase kinase activity of hearts from phosphorylase kinase-deficient mice.

In an assay measuring radioactive incorporation from gamma--P32P]ATP into phosphorylase b, cardiac muscle extracts from mice with the phosphorylase kinase deficiency mutation showed significant, calcium-dependent phosphorylase kinase activity that was 10 to 15% of that of Swiss mice, the control strain. Isoproterenol stimulated significant phosphorylase a accumulation in both isolated atria and right ventricular strips of phosphorylase kinase-deficient mice, and the drug-stimulated increases in phosphorylase a activity the the contractile responses of right ventricular strips were similar in Swiss and phosphorylase kinase/deficient mice.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Phosphorylase b kinase and phosphorylase a phosphatase activities in contracting vascular smooth muscle: stimulation by fatty acid.

The activities of phosphorylase b kinase and phosphorylase a phosphatase were determined during the phases of KCl-induced contraction in porcine carotid artery. Phosphorylase b kinase exhibited a biphasic pattern with activity increasing 70% above basal levels during the early phase of active force generation (45 s into contraction) followed by a decline in activity during the phase of steady-state tension maintenance. Phosphorylase a phosphatase was stimulated simultaneously with phosphorylase b kinase, with activity increasing 100% over basal levels at 45 s into contraction, but remaining elevated at 30 min. Incubation of arteries in 0.5 mM palmitate resulted in a 30% increase in basal activity of phosphorylase b kinase and 117% augmentation of basal phosphatase activity, with no further increase in activity of either enzyme with contraction. The results indicate that both the kinase and phosphatase are subject to regulation during contractile activation of the muscle, possibly by similar but not identical mechanisms.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Lymphocyte phosphorylase kinase activities in the sex-linked form of liver phosphorylase kinase deficiency.

Lymphocyte phosphorylase kinase activities were measured in normal controls and in patients with the sex-linked form of liver phosphorylase kinase deficiency. The reaction due to phosphorylase kinase activity in normal lymphocytes (2.7 X 10(6) in the reaction tube) was found to be linear within 20-60 min at 30 degrees C. The reaction was directly proportional to the concentration of lymphocytes within 1.5 X 10(6)-9.0 X 10(6), at 30 degrees C for 60 min. The phosphorylase kinase activity in normal lymphocytes, which were pre-incubated at 50 degrees C or 95 degrees C for 1 min, decreased to 60% at 50 degrees C and 10% at 95 degrees C of that after pre-incubation at 0 degree C for 1 min. The activity of normal controls was 125 +/- 23.5 U/10(10) lymphocytes. Those of the patients with liver phosphorylase kinase deficiency due to the sex-linked form were 43.5 U in case 1, 54.5 U in case 2, and 51.3 U in case 3, respectively and those of the mothers were within the normal range. These results suggest that phosphorylase kinase in lymphocytes might be form intermediate between liver and muscle phosphorylase kinase.

Child↗

PubMed1972

Role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in glycogen metabolism. Binding of phosphorylase, phosphorylase kinase, and primer complexes to the sarcovesicles of rabbit skeletal muscle.

Sarcoplasmic vesicles and beta-glycogen particles 30-40 mmicro in diameter were isolated from perfused rabbit skeletal muscle by the differential precipitation-centrifugation method. This microsomal fraction was subjected to zonal centrifugation on buffered sucrose gradients, in a B XIV Anderson type rotor, for 15 hr at 45,000 rpm in order to separate the two cytoplasmic organelles. Zonal profiles of absorbance at 280 mmicro, proteins, glycogen, and enzymatic activities (phosphorylase b kinase, phosphorylase b, and glycogen synthetase) were performed. Whereas the entire synthetase activity was found combined with the glycogen particles, 39% of phosphorylase and 53% of phosphorylase b kinase activities, present in the microsomal fraction, were recovered in the purified vesicular fraction (d = 1.175). This latter fraction consists of vesicles, derived from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and of small particles 10-20 mmicro in diameter attached to the outer surface of the membranes. These particles disappear after alpha-amylase treatment. Incubation of the sarcovesicular fraction with (14)C-labeled glucose-1-phosphate confirms the localization of a polysaccharide synthesis at the level of the membranes. "Flash activation" of phosphorylase b, i.e. Ca "activation" of phosphorylase kinase followed by a conversion of phosphorylase b into a, was demonstrated in the purified sarcovesicular fraction. Moreover, the active enzymatic sites were detected on the membranes by electron microscopy. The presence of binding sites between the membranes of the sarcoplasmic vesicles and a glycogen-enzyme complex suggests that this association plays a role in the glycogenolysis during muscle contraction.

Animals↗

PubMed1978

Native and latent forms of liver phosphorylase phosphatase. The non-identity of native phosphorylase phosphatase and synthase phosphatase.

The directly measurable (native) phosphorylase phosphatase present in a fresh mouse liver extract is bound to particulate glycogen and is not inhibited by heat-stable inhibitors. Treatment of the extract with trypsin or ethanol at room temperature caused a more than 10-fold increase in phosphorylase phosphatase activity. This increased activity stems from the activation of completely inactive (latent) enzyme, the major part of which is present in the high-speed supernatant. The trypsin-revealed activity can be completely blocked by heat-stable inhibitors. Treatment of the animal with glucocorticoids increases, and fasting decreases the activity of the native phosphorylase phosphatase. The level of latent enzyme, however, is unaffected by these treatments. The major portion of synthase phosphatase in the fresh liver extract is bound to glycogen. This enzyme is inhibited by the heat-stable inhibitor-2 and inactivated by trypsin or ethanol as well as by several treatments that have little effect on phosphorylase phosphatase. Upon DEAE-cellulose chromatography at 0 degrees C of a fresh liver extract, phosphorylase phosphatase and synthase phosphatase were resolved as separate, single peaks. If the preparation was not kept at 0 degrees C during the entire procedure, two peaks of each enzyme were observed. Under these conditions the first peak of phosphorylase phosphatase and of synthase phosphatase coincided. From these findings it is concluded that synthase phosphatase and phosphorylase phosphatase, in their native form, are distinct enzymes.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

Autophosphorylation of phosphorylase kinase and its regulatory function in the dephosphorylation of phosphorylase A.

Autophosphorylation of phosphorylase kinase was measured under conditions that favoured autoactivation. Heparin and troponin C stimulated the autophosphorylation of phosphorylase kinase at pH 6.8 in a Ca2+-dependent manner. The concentration required for the half-maximal stimulation of autophosphorylation for calcium ions was 2 microM in the absence of effectors, whereas 0.7 microM and 0.1 microM in the presence of troponin C and heparin, respectively. Calmodulin increased the rate of autophosphorylation of the alpha subunit only, resulting in a slight increase in the rate of autoactivation of phosphorylase kinase. Troponin C, heparin and polybrene enhanced the rate of autophosphorylation of both alpha and beta subunits. The increased autophosphorylation coincided with an enhancement of kinase activity. Neither of these stimulatory macromolecules had significant influence on the total number of phosphate groups incorporated into the alpha or beta subunits by autophosphorylation. Thio-autophosphorylated form of phosphorylase kinase behaved as an inhibitor in the dephosphorylation of phosphorylase a by the catalytic subunits of phosphatase-1 or phosphatase-2A and by the latent form of phosphatase-2A. Concentration of phosphorylase kinase needed to 50% inhibition was in the range of 0.05-0.08 microM.

Calmodulin↗

PubMed1983

Regulation of yeast phosphorylase by phosphorylase kinase and cAMP-dependent protein kinase.

Yeast phosphorylase is phosphorylated and activated by a cyclic AMP-independent protein kinase (called phosphorylase kinase) and a cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Only in the presence of both kinases is phosphorylase fully activated and phosphorylated. No evidence was found for the presence of two phosphorylation sites as an identical phosphopeptide pattern of phosphorylase is obtained after phosphorylation by either one or both kinases. The kinases probably phosphorylate identical sites but recognize different subunits of phosphorylase. Phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates the high-Mr subunit while cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylates the low-Mr subunit.

Enzyme Activation↗

PubMed1990

Direct visualization of phosphorylase-phosphorylase kinase complexes by scanning tunneling and atomic force microscopy.

In skeletal muscle the activation of phosphorylase b is catalyzed by phosphorylase kinase. Both enzymes occur in vivo as part of a multienzyme complex. The two enzymes have been imaged by atomic force microscopy and the results compared to those previously found by scanning tunneling microscopy. Scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy have been used to view complexes between the activating enzyme phosphorylase kinase and its substrate phosphorylase b. Changes in the size and shape of phosphorylase kinase were observed when it bound phosphorylase b.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

[Kinetics of action of phosphorylase kinase in an enzymatic cascade system. II. Assessment of the initial rate of the enzymatic reaction catalyzed by phosphorylase kinase].

The turbidimetric method for determining the phosphorylase kinase activity has been developed. The reaction mixture contained, alongside with other components of the kinase reaction, also the substrates of glycogen phosphorylase a, the final product of the kinase reaction-glycogen and glucose 1-phosphate (or inorganic phosphate). The kinetics of the cascade enzymatic system were followed by the increment (decrement) of absorbance of the glycogen solution at 360 nm (delta A). The initial rate of the phosphorylase kinase-catalyzed enzymatic reaction, nu 0, can be calculated according to the formula: nu 0 = 2tg alpha/a2, where tg alpha is the initial slope of the kinetic curve in the coordinates: delta A-(time)2 and a2 is the specific enzymatic activity of phosphorylase a. The latter was estimated from the initial rates of the phosphorylase reaction measured by the addition of glycogen to the reaction mixture after the completion of the kinase reaction. The reliability of the turbidimetric method for determining the phosphorylase kinase activity was proved by comparison with a direct method based on the measurement of the amount of incorporated 32P.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Phosphorylase kinase isozymes and phosphorylase in denervated skeletal muscles.

The effects of motor denervation on levels of phosphorylase kinase isozymes and phosphorylase were investigated in rat epitrochlearis, hemidiaphragm, and soleus muscles. Amounts of the proteins were measured after quantitative immunoprecipitation and found to be decreased by as much as 70% 2 weeks after denervation. Unexpectedly, denervation had little, if any, effect on the relative proportions of the two phosphorylase kinase isozymes. Phosphorylase and phosphorylase kinase were decreased by essentially the same extent after denervation, and the effects of denervation were comparable in all three muscles. The decreases in these enzymes explain, at least in part, the marked alterations in glycogen metabolism that occur after motor denervation.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

Insoluble glycogen and its interaction with phosphorylase. A novel method for the purification of liver phosphorylase A.

Purified liver glycogen dissolved in Tris-HCl buffer (pH 6.8) was converted into an insoluble polymer by incubation with phosphorylase and glucose 1-phosphate. Elongation of the outer chains of glycogen did not alter the average molecular weight significantly as judged by sedimentation velocity measurements, but the spectrophotometric analysis of glycogen-iodine complexes showed marked differences. Insoluble glycogen could bind rabbit skeletal muscle and liver phosphorylases. The association of insoluble glycogen with phosphorylase could be treated as a distribution equilibrium between glycogen-bound and unbound phosphorylase. Based on the formation of an insoluble glycogen protein complex sedimentable even by low-speed centrifugation, a novel method has been developed for the purification of liver phosphorylase a in a homogeneous form.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

Phosphorylase kinase specificity. A comparative study with cAMP-dependent protein kinase on synthetic peptides and peptide analogs of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase.

A synthetic pentadecapeptide, Pro-Leu-Ser-Arg-Thr-Leu-Ser-Val-Ser-Ser-Leu-Pro-Gly-Leu-Glu, corresponding to the phosphorylatable site at the NH2 terminus of glycogen synthase, could be phosphorylated stoichiometrically at seryl residue 7 by both phosphorylase kinase and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Phosphorylation of seryl residue 3 also occurred after prolonged incubation with cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Kinetic studies show that the pentadecapeptide is a better substrate for phosphorylase kinase. A peptide consisting of residues 1-11 was not as good a substrate and substitution of Arg-4 by Lys and Ser-9 by ARg in the unidecapeptide decreased and increased phosphorylase kinase reaction rates, respectively. Higher rates of phosphorylation were obtained with peptides of the phosphorylatable site of phosphorylase. A peptide with the sequence, Leu-Ser-Tyr-Arg-Arg-Tyr-Ser-Leu was phosphorylated initially by phosphorylase kinase and cAMP-dependent protein kinase at Ser-2 and Ser-7, respectively. Upon longer incubation, second site phosphorylation occurred with both kinases. A peptide of the same sequence with D-amino acids could not be phosphorylated but was a competitive inhibitor of both enzymes. The results suggest that optimal interaction of the two kinases depends on various factors including the orientation of arginyl groups with respect to the phosphorylatable serine.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1984

Methylthioadenosine phosphorylase and purine nucleoside phosphorylase in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Enzymes of purine metabolism have potential utility as biological markers of normal lymphocytes and their neoplastic counterparts. The activity of two of them, methylthioadenosine phosphorylase (MTA phosphorylase) and purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP) were measured in peripheral mononuclear cells from 11 patients with B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) and compared with those obtained in cells from 10 normal volunteers. An inverse relationship between the two phosphorylases was demonstrated in patients, with higher MTA-phosphorylase and lower PNP activities than in control subjects.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Direct observation of phosphorylase kinase and phosphorylase b by scanning tunneling microscopy.

The molecular structures of phosphorylase b and phosphorylase kinase have been visualized by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). STM is a near field technique that can resolve structures at the nanometer level and thus can image individual molecules. Phosphorylase b can be seen in dimeric and tetrameric forms as well as linear and globular aggregates. The linear arrays consist of side by side dimers with the long axis of the dimer perpendicular to the aggregated chain. Individual molecules of phosphorylase kinase appear to be planar, bilobate structures with a 2-fold axis of symmetry and a central depression.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Purification and properties of a cellobiose phosphorylase (CepA) and a cellodextrin phosphorylase (CepB) from the cellulolytic thermophile Clostridium stercorarium.

Two phosphorolytic enzymes displaying activity towards the soluble cellulose degradation products cellobiose and cellodextrins were purified from the crude extract of the cellulolytic thermophile Clostridium stercorarium. Both phosphorylases have monomeric structures with molecular masses of 93 and 91 kDa, respectively. Although the N-terminal amino acid sequences are highly similar, a clear distinction of the two enzymes could be made on the basis of their substrate specificities: the enzyme designated cellobiose phosphorylase cleaved exclusively the disaccharide substrate, whereas the enzyme designated cellodextrin phosphorylase accepted only oligosaccharides as substrates. Kinetic constants were determined for the cleavage of cellobiose and cellodextrins. Maximal activity was observed at 65 degrees C in the pH range 6.0-7.0 for both enzymes. The sequences of the genes cepA and cepB encoding the cellobiose phosphorylase and the cellodextrin phosphorylase, respectively, have been submitted to the GenBank database.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1981

Alpha 1-Adrenergic stimulation of Ca2+ mobilization without phosphorylase activation in hepatocytes from phosphorylase b kinase-deficient gsd/gsd rats.

Phenylephrine, vasopressin and the bivalent cation ionophore A23187 mobilized Ca2+ normally, but failed to activate phosphorylase, in hepatocytes from gsd/gsd rats with a deficiency of liver phosphorylase b kinase. These data provide strong evidence that phosphorylase b kinase is the site of action of the Ca2+ mobilized intracellularly during alpha 1-adrenergic activation of phosphorylase in liver cells.

Animals↗

PubMed1983

[Cloning of Bacillus subtilis 168 genes compensating for the defect in mutations for thymidine phosphorylase and uridine phosphorylase in Escherichia coli cells].

On the basis of Bacillus subtilis DNA and vectors pBR325, pBR322, a collection of hybrid plasmids restoring the wild type in the double Escherichia coli mutant for thymidine phosphorylase (deoA) and uridine phosphorylase (udp) has been obtained. In spite of the fact that in Bac. subtilis, in contrast to E. coli, phosphorolytic cleavage of thymidine and uridine is catabolized by one enzyme-pyrimidine nucleoside phosphorylase (pdp gene), some plasmids caused the appearance of the activity similar to thymidine phosphorylase (deoA type) in E. coli cells. Plasmids of the deoA type as well as many of plasmids causing the appearance in E. coli cells of the activity of the pdp type were not able to transform cells of the Bac. subtilis pdp mutant, strain PC315, to the wild type. Moreover, on the basis of PC315 DNA, hybrid plasmids have been obtained giving the activity of the pdp type. The suggestion of the possible presence in Bac. subtilis 168 genome of non-expressible cryptic genes of the deoA and pdp type is discussed.

Bacillus subtilis↗