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PubMed1998

Blood and breath analyses as biological indicators of exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools.

In this article, exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in indoor swimming pools as a consequence of water chlorination is reported. Environmental and biological monitoring of THMs was performed in order to assess the uptake of these substances after a defined period in five competitive swimmers, regularly attending an indoor swimming pool to train for competition during four sampling sessions. Analyses were performed by gas-chromatography and the following THMs were detected: chloroform (CHC13), bromodichloromethane (CHBrC12), dibromochloromethane (CHBrsC1) and bromoform (CHBr3). CHC13 appeared the most represented compound both in water and in environmental air before and after swimming. CHBrC1w and CHBr2C1 were always present, even though at lower levels than CHC13, CHBr3, was rarely present. In relation to biological monitoring, CHC13, CHBrC12 and CHBr2C1 were detected in all alveolar air samples collected inside the swimming pool. Before swimming, after 1 h at rest at the pool edge, the mean values were 29.4 +/- 13.3, 2.7 +/- 1.2 and 0.8 +/- 0.8 micrograms/m3, respectively, while after spending 1 h swimming, higher levels were detected (75.6 +/- 18.6, 6.5 +/- 1.3 and 1.4 +/- 0.9 micrograms/m3, respectively). Only CHC13 was detected in all plasma samples (mean: 1.4 +/- 0.5 micrograms/1) while CHBrC1x and CHBr2C1 were observed only in few samples at a detection limit of 0.1 micrograms/1. After 1 h at rest, at an average environmental exposure of approx. 100 micrograms/m3, the THM uptake was approx. 30 micrograms/h (26 micrograms/h for CHC1c, 3 micrograms/h for CHBrC12 and 1.5 micrograms/h for CHBr2C1). After 1 h swimming, the THM uptake is approx. seven times higher than at rest: a THM mean uptake of 221 micrograms/h (177 micrograms/h, 26 micrograms/h and 18 micrograms/h for CHC13, CHBrC12 and CHBr2C1, respectively) was evaluated at an environmental concentration of approx. 200 micrograms/m3.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Pollution status of swimming pools in south-south zone of south-eastern Nigeria using microbiological and physicochemical indices.

Microbiological and physicochemical characteristics of swimming pools in South Eastern states of Nigeria (Akwa Ibom and Cross River) were investigated. The bacterial isolates included Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli. Others were Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris and Staphylococcus epidermidis, while fungal isolates were Penicillium sp, Rhizopus sp, Aspergillus versicolor Fusarium sp, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Mucor sp, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and Absidia sp. The total viable count of microorganims in Ibeno (B) and Uyo (E) swimming pools were 6 x 10(6) cfu/ml and for Calabar (H) swimming pool, 3.3 x 10(7) cfu/ml. The total coliform counts were 10(6) cfu/100 ml for Calabar (G) swimming pools and 2 x 10(7) cfu/100 ml for Calabar (H) swimming pools while the fungal count ranged from 5 x 10(6) cfu/ml to 3 x 10(7) cfu/ml. Physical and chemical parameters known to be hazardous to health were also identified. The presence of high levels of coliform and fecal coliform bacteria (E. coli) revelaed that the swimming pools have not met the World Health Organization (WHO) standard for recreational waters. The swimming pools constitute a serious public health hazard.

Bacillus cereus↗

PubMed2002

Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools.

OBJECTIVES: For many decades chlorination has been used as a major disinfectant process for public drinking and swimming pool water in many countries. However, there has been rising concern over the possible link between disinfectant byproducts (DBPs) and adverse reproductive outcomes. The purpose of this study was to estimate the concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs) in some indoor swimming pools in London and their variation within and between pools and any correlation with other factors. METHODS: Water samples were collected from eight different indoor swimming pools in London. A total of 44 pool samples were collected and analysed for total organic content (TOC) and THMs. Water and air temperature were measured along with the pH during the collection of pool samples. The level of turbulence and the number of people in the pool at the time were also assessed. RESULTS: The geometric mean concentration for all swimming pools of TOC was 5.8 mg/l, of total THMs (TTHMs) 132.4 microg/l, and for chloroform 113.3 microg/l. There was a clear positive linear correlation between the number of people in the swimming pool and concentrations of TTHMs and chloroform (r=0.7, p<0.01), and a good correlation between concentrations of TOC and TTHMs (r=0.5, p<0.05) and water temperature and concentrations of TTHMs (r=0.5, p<0.01). There was a larger variation in THMs within pools than between pools. CONCLUSION: Relatively high concentrations of THMs were found in London's indoor swimming pools. The levels correlated with the number of people in the pool, water temperature, and TOC. The variation in concentrations of THMs was greater within pools than between pools.

Air Pollutants↗

PubMedDate not supplied

In vitro susceptibility of public indoor swimming pool fungi to three disinfectants.

The floors of indoor swimming pools are contaminated by yeasts, dermatophytes and other saprophytic species. Previous epidemiological studies have revealed that the fungi persist even after cleaning. Three disinfectants were tested in vitro against fungi standard isolated from swimming pool floors. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) tests and AFNOR standard T72-201 were carried out. Adilon and Decalcite, commonly used in swimming pools, were ineffective against most of the fungi, while Nobactel, recommended elsewhere, was particularly effective against the studied fungi. In addition to the necessary technical modifications of the methods, this study highlights the need to choose effective antifungal compounds and to alternate cleaning products to minimize acquired resistance.

Arthrodermataceae↗

PubMed1981

The safety standards of domestic swimming pools.

The rate of exposure to the hazards of domestic swimming pools was examined for 1143 three-year-old Christchurch children. Just over 11 percent of children lived in homes with a swimming pool. A further 20 percent did not have a pool but there was a pool on an immediately adjacent property. Examination of four safety features for swimming pools suggested there was considerable room for improvement in the safety standards of the pools surveyed: over half did not have a surrounding fence or wall at least a metre high; less than one in five had a surrounding fence with self-closing gate or padlocked gate; just under half had sides more than a metre above ground level; and one pool in five had none of the four safety features. The implications of these findings for the provision of adequate pool safety standards are discussed.

Accident Prevention↗

PubMed1980

Virulent Naegleria fowleri in indoor swimming pool.

Naegleria fowleri was isolated from water during a hygienic inspection of a swimming pool in December 1977. This swimming pool was identified as a source of the infectious agent in the years 1962-1965, when a large outbreak of primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAME) occurred. First two strains of N. fowleri, pathogenic for white mice after intracerebral and intranasal inoculation, were isolated from water of outlet troughs, additional strains were then isolated from various places; particularly from a cavity in the damaged wall of the pool. The incubation temperature did not inhibit a simultaneous growth of amoebae of the genera Acanthamoeba, Flabellula, Hartmannella and Vahlkampfia in the primocultures. Epidemiological investigations did not reveal any new case of PAME in relation with the occurrence of pathogenic N. fowleri in the swimming pool.

Amebiasis↗

PubMed1977

Swimming pool immersion accidents: an analysis from the Brisbane drowning study.

An analysis of a consecutive series of 66 swimming pool immersion accidents is presented; 74% of these occurred in in-ground swimming pools. The estimated accident rate per pool is five times greater for in-ground pools compared with above-ground pools, where pools are inadequately fenced. Backyard swimming pools account for 74% of pool acidents. Motel and caravan park pools account for 9% of childhood immersion accidents, but the survival rate (17%) is very low. Fifty per cent of pool accidents occur in the family's own backyard pool, and 13.6% in a neighbour's pool; in the latter the survival rate is still low at only 33%. In only one of the 66 cases was there an adequate safety fence; in 76% of cases there was no fence or barrier whatsoever. Tables of swimming pool accidents by age, season, site and outcome are presented.

Accidents↗

PubMed1998

Respiratory symptoms and bronchial responsiveness in lifeguards exposed to nitrogen trichloride in indoor swimming pools.

OBJECTIVES: To measure the levels of exposure to nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) in the atmosphere of indoor swimming pools and to examine how they relate to irritant and chronic respiratory symptoms, indices of pulmonary function, and bronchial hyperresponsiveness to methacholine in lifeguards working in the pools. METHOD: 334 lifeguards (256 men; 78 women) recruited from 46 public swimming pools (n = 228) and 17 leisure centre swimming pools (n = 106) were examined. Concentrations of NCl3 were measured with area samplers. Symptoms were assessed by questionnaire and methacholine bronchial challenge (MBC) test by an abbreviated method. Subjects were labelled MBC+ if forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) fell by > or = 20%. The linear dose-response slope was calculated as the percentage fall in FEV1 at the last dose divided by the total dose given. RESULTS: 1262 samples were taken in the 63 pools. Mean NCl3 concentrations were greater in leisure than in public pools. A significant concentration-response relation was found between irritant eye, nasal, and throat symptoms-but not chronic respiratory symptoms-and exposure concentrations. Among women, the prevalence of MBC+ was twice as great as in men. Overall, no relation was found between bronchial hyperresponsiveness and exposure. CONCLUSIONS: The data show that lifeguards exposed to NCl3 in indoor swimming pools are at risk of developing irritant eye, nasal, and throat symptoms. Exposure to NCl3 does not seem to carry the risk of developing permanent bronchial hyperresponsiveness, but this association might have been influenced by self selection. The possibility that subjects exposed to NCl3 are at risk of developing transient bronchial hyperresponsiveness cannot be confidently ruled out.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Chlorate as an inorganic disinfection by product in swimming pools.

Chlorate and chlorite concentrations were determined in water samples taken from 33 swimming pools. In the pools under investigation, disinfection of the water is carried out either by gaseous chlorine (n = 14) or hypochlorite solution in conjunction with flocculation and sand filtration. A number of the pools also use ozone treatment to augment the disinfection process. Chlorite was not detectable in any of the samples (detection limit 1 mg/l). High concentrations of chlorate were detected in samples from a number of the pools; in one case as high as 40 mg/l. Higher chlorate concentrations were found to be associated with those pools using hypochlorite solution as a disinfecting agent. In contrast, relatively low chlorate concentrations were found in pools treated with gaseous chlorine. In order to elucidate any relationship between the chlorate content of pool water and that of the respective hypochlorite stock solution, chlorate and bromate concentrations were determined in the hypochlorite stock solutions of nine pools. Bromate concentration in the stock solutions were not found to exceed 1.2 g/l, chlorate was measured in concentrations of up to 44.5 g/l. The additional use of ozone as part of the water purification process appears to have no significant influence on chlorate concentration. Chlorate has no bactericidal properties and does not interfere with the measurement of certain parameters relevant to hygiene in swimming pools such as free and combined chlorine, pH or redox potential. At present, the effects of high chlorate concentrations in swimming pool water are unclear. Our initial investigations indicate that chlorate has no cytotoxic (Neutral-Red assay) or irritating properties (HET-CAM assay). However, both chlorate and chlorite are known to interfere with the haematopoetic system. In Germany, the MCL for chlorite in drinking water is 0.2 mg/l. It is therefore strongly recommended that measures should be taken to reduce chlorate concentrations in swimming pool water.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Assessing the health impact of local amenities: a qualitative study of contrasting experiences of local swimming pool and leisure provision in two areas of Glasgow.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To assess the health impacts of local public swimming pool and leisure provision. DESIGN: Retrospective qualitative study using focus groups. Reports from two areas with contrasting experience of provision of a public swimming pool (opening and closure) were compared within the context of general reports about health and neighbourhood. SETTING: Two deprived neighbourhoods in south Glasgow. PARTICIPANTS: Local adult residents of mixed ages, accessed through local community groups. MAIN RESULTS: In both areas the swimming pool was reported as an important amenity that was linked to health and wellbeing. However, few residents reported regular use of the pool for physical activity. Use of the pool facility for social contact was directly linked to reports of relief of stress and isolation, and improved mental health. Pool closure was one in a series of amenity closures and area decline and was used to represent other area changes. Health impacts were strongly linked to the pool closure. The pool opening was associated with local area regeneration, similar but less prominent links between swimming pool provision and health were reported. Health benefits of social contact were diffuse and linked to other local amenities as well as the new pool facility. CONCLUSIONS: Although theoretically linked to increased physical activity, the health benefits conveyed by the swimming pool may be more closely linked to the facilitation of social contact, and a supervised facility for young children. The use of qualitative work to investigate area based change provides rich contextual data to strengthen and explain the reported health impacts.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

[Irritating effects of disinfection by-products in swimming pools].

Compounds which can occur as disinfection by-products (DBP's) in swimming pool water were examined for their mucous membrane irritating potential. Previous studies using the rabbit eye test (Draizé test) have shown that the irritating potential of typical concentrations of free and combined chlorine are insufficient to explain the degree of eye irritation that can result from exposure to swimming pool water. Other DBP's which may be responsible for eye irritation include halogenated carboxyl compounds (HCC's) which act as precursors during the formation of chloroform. In this study, a modified HET-CAM Test (Hens Egg Test at the Chorion Allantois Membrane) has been used to investigate the mucous membrane irritating effects of HCC's. Some of the compounds tested were found to have a significantly increased irritating effect when compared to a chlorine/chloramine mixture of the same concentration, several mixtures of HCC's where even more active at lower concentrations than single compounds. However, the irritating effects of individual compounds as well as of mixtures of HCC's were not sufficiently intense to allow the identification of those compounds specifically responsible for the overall observed increase in irritation. HCC's were therefore tested in the presence of aqueous chlorine solution. When combined with aqueous chlorine, a number of compounds exhibited significantly enhanced effects. Our results show that the eye irritating effects of low concentrations of DBP's can be investigated using a modified HET-CAM assay. Moreover, results obtained using this assay suggest that the mucous membrane irritating potential of swimming pool water is a consequence of the effects and synergistic action of a number of DBP's in the presence of chlorine. Further work should be carried out in order to establish an indicator for eye irritating effects of swimming pool water.

Allantois↗

PubMed1984

Determinants of the microbiological characteristics of South Australian swimming pools.

A survey of 100 swimming pools has been conducted to assess the effectiveness of disinfection practices against various microorganisms and to check compliance with recommended chlorine levels and pH. Microbiological quality was assessed from densities of total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, total colony counts, and the presence or absence of amoebae, including the pathogen Naegleria fowleri. Although a free chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/liter and a pH range of 7.0 to 7.6 are recommended by local health authorities, 41 pools had a lower free chlorine residual and 37 had a pH outside this range. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to test the association of field measurements with the microbiological data. The analysis demonstrated a strong positive association of free chlorine with bacteriological quality and the absence of Naegleria spp. No other field measurement was predictive in this regard, although the absence of all amoebae was associated with a relatively low water temperature and pH. Using a mathematical model derived from this analysis, it was estimated that 99% of pools would have acceptable bacteriological quality and 94% would be free of Naegleria spp. at a free chlorine residual of 1.0 mg/liter. However, at the mean water temperature (23 degrees C) and pH (7.5) seen in this study, other amoebae would still be detectable in 500-ml samples taken from 40% of pools at this chlorine level.

Amoeba↗

PubMed2006

Backyard swimming pool safety inspections: a comparison of management approaches and compliance levels in three local government areas in NSW.

ISSUE ADDRESSED: Since 1992, swimming pool fencing has been a legislative requirement in New South Wales (NSW), yet compliance with the NSW Swimming Pool Act is mixed. Local councils are responsible for the enforcement of the act. However, their approach to enforcement and the management of backyard swimming pool safety inspections is varied. METHODS: A random sample of backyard swimming pools was inspected in Council A and existing compliance data for pools in two other councils (B and C) were obtained. Pool owners in Council A were surveyed regarding their attitudes to pool fencing and inspections. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with council employees. RESULTS: Pool compliance rates across the three council areas varied. In Councils A and C, 51% and 54% of pools, respectively, were found to be non-compliant at the first inspection. Following re-inspection in Council A of 227 pools, a further 125 pools reached compliance. In Council B, 97% of the inspected pools were compliant. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence of poor backyard swimming pool safety compliance where local government inspection activity is minimal or non-existent.

Building Codes↗

PubMed2001

Prevalence of Legionella spp. in swimming pool environment.

A study was carried out to evaluate the prevalence of bacteria of the Legionella genus in the water from the pools and showers of 12 swimming pools in the city of Bologna (Italy). Sampling took place four times for every establishment, once for each season of the year. Legionella spp. were found in 2 of the 48 pool water samples (L. micdadei and L. bozenanii) and in 27 of the 48 samples taken from the hot water of the showers: 19 were positive for L. pneumophila (10-19,250 cfu/l) and 18 for other species (20-6000 cfu/l). The contamination was seen to be consistent throughout the year, since the same species of legionellae were isolated at different samplings and in concentrations that did not reveal any seasonal trend. The legionellae and the Gram negative bacteria were not found in shower water with a temperature above 43 degrees C. However, in the samples of shower water with a lower temperature a statistically significant inverse correlation was seen between legionellae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (r = -0.51; p<0.01) as well as between legionellae and Gram negative bacteria (r = -0.70; p<0.01). The potential risk of contracting infections from Legionella spp. in the swimming pool environment does not seem to be linked to the pool water, but to that of the showers. The water temperature of showers should therefore be maintained at a level high enough to prevent the reproduction of these bacteria.

Environmental Monitoring↗

PubMed1981

[Important hygienic aspects for swimming pools (author's transl)].

The major epidemics which occurred in Hungary and originated from water in swimming pools are reported. The difficulties encountered in producing epidemiological evidence and in monitoring infections originating from water in swimming pools are mentioned. The possibilities of controlling the water quality in swimming pools and of preventing infections are discussed. Reference is made to the existing bacteriological limit values in Hungary to be observed in the recirculation of water in swimming pools.

Bacteria↗

PubMed2003

Bacteriological and chemical quality of swimming pools water in developing countries: a case study in the West Bank of Palestine.

Monitoring was carried out during summer 2000 in all the swimming pools in the West Bank of Palestine. Fifty-eight water samples, collected from 46 swimming pools, were examined for Coliforms and bacterial species including Streptococci, Salmonellae, and Staphylococcus. Salmonellae were isolated in 21 out of 23 samples. All of the examined samples from the swimming pools water were unacceptable according to the Palestinian and WHO standards. Extensive efforts are required to improve the water quality of the swimming pools in the West Bank, mainly public awareness, training of governmental inspectors, operators and owners of the swimming pools, in addition to a strict system for monitoring of the water quality.

Developing Countries↗

PubMed1988

[Illnesses in relation to swimming pool visits--conclusions of a survey].

Diseases acquired by using swimming-pools were recorded by inquiring visitors and local physicians in a German spa. The diseases were brought into relation with microbiological and chemical parameters of the swimming-pool water. Water quality was in general satisfying, but on days with a very great number of visitors the treatment-plant quickly was working beyond capacity. 663 out of 1056 visitors indicated diseases which they traced back to the visit of the swimming-pool. The quality of the water was the reason for only a part of the diseases. Eye-irritations and colds counted up to nearly half of the illnesses, other frequent complaints concerned the skin and the ear-nose-and throat-region.

Bacterial Infections↗

PubMed1988

Water hygiene of two swimming pools: microbial indicators.

The microbiological quality of the water of two swimming pools was evaluated to determine which organisms might be the best indicators of pollution. Membrane filtration gave low numbers of the common indicators of faecal pollution but high counts of the indigenous skin bacteria. As illnesses normally contracted in a swimming pool are mostly those of the skin rather than intestinal, it is suggested that the best indicators of the hygienic condition of water in a swimming pool are staphylococci because of their resistance to disinfection, high numbers in the environment, and ease of recovery.

Bacteria↗