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PubMed1986

Postprandial glucose and insulin responses to various snacks of equivalent carbohydrate content in normal subjects.

To evaluate glucose and insulin responses after ingestion of snacks, we gave healthy, nondiabetic male subjects carbohydrate equivalent (25 g) snacks or isocaloric (265 kcal) snack meals in a random crossover design. Individual snacks composed of either a milk chocolate bar, granola bar, chocolate milk, peanut butter cups, yogurt, or potato chips produced similar glucose response curves. Plasma glucose concentrations were lower (p less than or equal to 0.05) at 30 and 60 min postprandially than after a corresponding oral glucose challenge. In contrast, insulin responses to the snacks exhibited a two-fold variation in peak values. Isocaloric snack meals of cereal-milk, cheese sandwich-milk, and peanut butter sandwich-chocolate milk produced glucose and insulin responses similar to individual snacks. Although glucose concentrations at 60 min fell somewhat below baseline values after each snack, clinical hypoglycemia was not evident. These data clearly indicate a similarity in glycemic response among normal individuals consuming a variety of common snacks.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Estimated consumption and eating frequency of olestra from savory snacks using menu census data.

Potential chronic (14-d average) and acute (single-day) estimated daily intakes (EDI) were computed for olestra, a fat replacement intended for use in preparing savory snacks. The EDI were computed from eating occasions reported during a 14-d Menu Census survey among 4741 consumers; values were increased by 10% for conservatism. The eating occasions included all meals and in-between meal occasions eaten at home or away. Data from only those individuals who ate savory snacks at least once during the 14 d were used; this included 3820 individuals (81% of the sample) and represented a total of 16,067 eating days (24% frequency). The estimated mean chronic intake ranged from 1.8 to 4.7 g/d, depending on age and gender; at the 90th percentile, the range was 4.1-11.0 g/d. For all ages and both genders, the estimated mean intake was 3.1 g/d. Estimated acute intakes at the mean and 90th percentile ranged from 5.5 to 16.5 g/d and from 10.2 to 24.0 g/d, respectively, depending on age and gender. For all ages and both genders, the estimated mean intake was 10.2 g/d. The lack of parity in the chronic and acute intake estimates indicates that savory snacks are not eaten on a daily basis by the majority of snack eaters. The survey data were analyzed to understand the potential temporal eating patterns of olestra from savory snacks. When snacks were consumed, on average, 69% of the eating occasions were with main meals and 31% were between meals. Savory snacks did not contribute a major fraction of total food to the diet; only 7 and 18% of main meals contained a savory snack food at the 50th and 90th percentile, respectively. For the 50th-percentile consumer (all ages, both genders), savory snacks were eaten four times during the 14-d survey period, and the eating occasions occurred on 3 d. Comparable results for 90th-percentile consumers were 10 eating occasions and 8 eating days.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Factors influencing students' decisions to choose healthy or unhealthy snacks at the University of Newcastle, Australia.

The aim of this study was to explore factors influencing selection of healthy and unhealthy snacks among students. Ten students who study at the University of Newcastle in Australia participated in semi-structured interviews. Content analysis was used to analyse the data. The findings indicated that a variety of food was consumed by the students. Students classified snacks generally as unhealthy. Four major themes that emerged were: the perception of healthy and unhealthy snacks, the factors related to selection of healthy and unhealthy snacks, feelings related to consumption of snacks, and ways to avoid unhealthy snacks. Factors influencing choices about healthy or unhealthy snacks were environment, availability of the snacks, study pressure, health problems, habits, and social activity. The limitation of this study was the small size of the sample, resulting in the fact that no general conclusions could be drawn. The results however, could help school nurses to gain a deeper understanding of university students ' snacking patterns. It might also assist school nurses in the development of healthy eating guidance for university students.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Snacking habits of senior Americans.

This study evaluated snacking behavior among 335 non-institutionalized Americans aged 55 years and older. Respondents were randomly selected from the fifty states excluding Hawaii and Alaska and questioned by trained telephone interviewers using the CATI system. The study found that the majority of seniors snacked at least once daily with only 2.1% reporting that they never snack. Morning is the least common and evening is the most common time for snacking. Almost all snacking occurs at home. When selecting snacks, taste outranks nutrition as selection criteria. Fruits were popular but were chosen less often than other snacks. Findings suggest that snacking should be targeted with specific nutrition education messages that address the influences of time of day, location, and qualities of foods upon the choices made when snacking.

Aged↗

PubMed2001

Pricing and promotion effects on low-fat vending snack purchases: the CHIPS Study.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the effects of pricing and promotion strategies on purchases of low-fat snacks from vending machines. METHODS: Low-fat snacks were added to 55 vending machines in a convenience sample of 12 secondary schools and 12 worksites. Four pricing levels (equal price, 10% reduction, 25% reduction, 50% reduction) and 3 promotional conditions (none, low-fat label, low-fat label plus promotional sign) were crossed in a Latin square design. Sales of low-fat vending snacks were measured continuously for the 12-month intervention. RESULTS: Price reductions of 10%, 25%, and 50% on low-fat snacks were associated with significant increases in low-fat snack sales; percentages of low-fat snack sales increased by 9%, 39%, and 93%, respectively. Promotional signage was independently but weakly associated with increases in low-fat snack sales. Average profits per machine were not affected by the vending interventions. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing relative prices on low-fat snacks was effective in promoting lower-fat snack purchases from vending machines in both adult and adolescent populations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Can fruits and vegetables and activities substitute for snack foods?

This study investigated the choice of snack foods versus fruits and vegetables and enjoyable sedentary behaviors using a computerized behavioral choice task. Thirty-nine participants were provided the choice of earning points for snack foods or fruits and vegetables (Condition 1) or snack foods or enjoyable sedentary behaviors (Condition 2). The behavioral cost to gain access to snacks increased across trials, whereas the behavioral costs to obtain alternatives to snack foods remained constant across trials. Results showed that when costs for snack foods and alternatives were equal, participants chose snack foods, but as the behavioral costs increased, participants shifted choice to the alternatives. The switch point for both alternatives was equal. Results suggest that fruits and vegetables and sedentary activities can substitute for snack foods when the behavioral cost for snack foods is increased.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Sources of energy from meals versus snacks in 220 people in four age groups.

OBJECTIVES: To assess meals versus snacks in terms of their contribution to total daily energy intake (TDI), macronutrient composition, and food commodity profile. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: Meals and snacks were assessed from 220 7-day weighed dietary records. 187 records were obtained from three separate existing studies, and reanalysed. These studies contained data on three different age groups in the British population; elderly group (n = 88), middle-aged group (n = 40), young adult group (n = 59). A separate study of 13-14-year-olds living in Croydon was conducted from which 33 usable diet records were collected (adolescent group). RESULTS: Boys in the adolescent group consumed more of their TDI as snacks (29.0%) compared with men in the young adult (18.9%) and elderly groups (16.6%), but not the middle-aged group (25.8%). Females consumed about the same percentage of their TDI as snacks; adolescent group 23.6%, young adult group 19.4%, middle-aged group 21.4%, elderly group 17.9%. Meals were higher in protein and fat, and lower in total sugars, compared with snacks. Chocolate confectionery, crisps and fizzy drinks and squashes were popular snack foods in the adolescent group. Unlike snacks, the food commodity profiles of meals were similar in all age groups. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that foods and drinks consumed as snacks by the British public, including the elderly, have a relatively high total sugar composition. These results add to the concern relating snack foods with dental caries.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Preschoolers' mid-afternoon snack intake is not affected by lunchtime food consumption.

The purpose of this study was two-fold: to determine the contribution of mid-afternoon snack intake to total daily energy intake and to examine the effect of lunchtime eating on subsequent snack intake in preschool children. Lunch energy intake was manipulated by varying the energy content of the milk beverage served at lunch. Mid-afternoon snack consumption in 135 children, aged 18-66 months, offered chocolate-flavored or plain milk at lunch. Nutritious mid-morning snacks, lunches and mid-afternoon snacks were served on a rotating schedule 2 days per week for 12 weeks. The children were allowed to consume as much as they wanted of any food items served at lunch or snacktime, including the beverages. Although the children consumed significantly more energy during lunchtime meals at which sucrose-sweetened chocolate milk was served, their intake of the mid-afternoon snack was not affected by the type of milk beverage served or the energy consumed at lunch. All children consumed between 20 and 25% of their daily energy requirement at lunch and between 8 and 22% of their daily energy requirement during the mid-afternoon snack. Snacks are an important source of energy for young children, especially those under three years of age.

Appetite↗

PubMed1990

Effects of food snacks on cognitive performance in male college students.

The effects of food snacks consumed in the late afternoon on cognitive performance in college-aged men were investigated in two experiments. The effects of the snacks were tested in the same subjects after they either consumed or skipped lunch. In the first experiment, the calorie-rich snack was a confectionery product, while in the second experiment, the snack was fruit-flavored yogurt. In both experiments, performance on cognitive tasks following consumption of the calorie-rich snack was compared to performance following consumption of a very low calorie snack (lemon-lime flavored diet soda without caffeine). Four cognitive tasks were employed: digit span recall (forward and backward), arithmetic reasoning, reading, and attention. In both experiments, subjects recalled significantly more digits in the backward digit span test and responded significantly faster in the attention task when they had consumed the calorific snack than when they had consumed the diet soft drink. Additionally, in Experiment 2, subjects solved significantly more arithmetic problems and solved these problems in significantly less time after eating a fruit-flavored yogurt than after consuming the diet soft drink. Results of these experiments suggest that a late afternoon energy-containing snack can have positive effects on cognitive performance on tasks that require sustained attention.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Effect of limiting snack food variety across days on hedonics and consumption.

Decreased variety within a meal reduces intake, which is hypothesized to be due to sensory-specific satiety. This study examined whether reduced variety across days also influences food hedonics and intake. Twenty-one, non-obese, college-aged, dietarily unrestrained males were randomized to one of two conditions: a Same Snack condition in which they were given the same sweet snack food (crumb cake) to eat in four laboratory sessions and to take home and eat between sessions, or a Variety condition in which they were given different snack foods (both sweet and salty) to eat in four sessions and to take home and eat between sessions. Dependent measures were caloric intake from crumb cake and hedonic ratings of snack foods in sessions 1 and 4. Mixed repeated measures analysis of variance found no effect of snack food variety on consumption. However, the Same Snack condition had a lower hedonic rating of the crumb cake on Day 4 than the Variety condition and the change from day 1 to 4 in hedonics of the crumb cake was greater than that of the salty snack foods in the Same Snack condition. These findings indicate that limiting variety across several days reduces hedonics of the limited food.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Short-term effects of chewing gum on snack intake and appetite.

Consumers report that chewing gum can reduce cravings and the likelihood of snacking. The present study set out to examine the effects of chewing gum on subjective appetite and snack energy intake (EI) in 60 participants (40 females, 20 males, 21.7+/-4 years; BMI=22.7+/-3.4) who came to the laboratory four times for lunch and then returned 3 h later for a snack. Participants consumed salty or sweet snacks after chewing gum (sugar-free or regular) for 15 min hourly after lunch or had no-gum. Hunger, desire to eat and fullness were rated immediately after lunch (T0) and hourly post-lunch (T1 and T2) until just before snack (T3). Chewing gum reduced EI by 36 cal (401.8+/-22 kcal) compared to no-gum (437.7+/-23 kcal; p=0.04). Rated hunger increased from T0 to T3 (p<0.001); however, this was less after gum compared to no-gum (p<0.01). Desire to consume salty and sweet snacks also increased. However, desire to eat sweet snacks (but not salty) increased less after gum compared to no-gum (p=0.004). Therefore, chewing gum suppressed appetite, specifically desire for sweets and reduced snack intake. This supports anecdotal reports by consumers and could inform weight control strategies.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Meal and snack patterns of infants and toddlers.

OBJECTIVE: To describe meal and snack patterns of infants and toddlers. DESIGN: A cross-sectional telephone survey in which mothers reported their infants' and toddlers' food and beverage intakes for a 24-hour period. SUBJECTS: Subjects included 3,022 infants and toddlers, ages 4 to 24 months, in the Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Means+/-standard deviations, frequencies, percentages, energy and nutrient analyses, nutrient densities. RESULTS: On average, infants and toddlers were fed seven times per day. The breakfast, lunch, and dinner pattern, plus snacks, emerged at 7 to 8 months and was well established by 9 to 11 months. Breakfasts were higher in nutrient density for iron, folate, and calcium than other meals. The percentage of children reported to be eating snacks increased with age. The afternoon snack was consumed by over 80% of toddlers (12 to 24 months), and snacks provided about 25% of toddlers' daily energy intakes. Typical snack foods for toddlers were milk, water, cookies, crackers, chips, and fruit drinks. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Results of this study provide parents and professionals with specific information about meal and snack patterns, thereby allowing development of targeted messages and/or strategies to improve the dietary patterns of infants and toddlers. Although most foods provided to the Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study infants and toddlers were nutritionally and developmentally appropriate, snack choices could be improved by delaying introduction of and limiting exposures to foods low in nutrients and high in calories.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2006

Snacks as an element of energy intake and food consumption.

BACKGROUND: An increasing frequency of snacks has been observed in meal pattern studies. Snacks can alter the diet because of their high-energy density and low-nutrient content or on the contrary. OBJECTIVE: The prominence of snacks in energy intake and food consumption was assessed. DESIGN: Dietary data were collected for 2007 adults by using a computer-assisted 48-h dietary recall in the national FINDIET 2002 survey. Energy intakes and food consumption were aggregated for snacks and for main meals. RESULTS: Daily energy was mostly derived from main meals comprising traditional mixed dishes, milk and bread. However, a snack-dominating meal pattern was observed in 19% of men and 24% of women. This meal pattern was associated with urbanization in both genders and with physical work in men. Higher sucrose intake and lower intake of micronutrients were typical of the snack-dominating meal pattern compared to the others. CONCLUSIONS: As snacks appear to have a higher energy density and a lower content of micronutrients than main meals, a snack-dominating meal pattern is inadvisable. However, further studies are needed to examine the association between meal pattern and health status.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Weight loss with meal replacement and meal replacement plus snacks: a randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether snacking would improve weight loss and weight maintenance in overweight individuals within the context of a structured meal replacement (MR) weight loss program. DESIGN: A prospective 24 week, 2 (snacking vs nonsnacking) x 2 (MR vs meal replacement augmented with snacks (MRPS)) randomized trial. Participants were instructed to limit their total daily intake to 1200 (women) or 1500 (men) kcals. Those receiving the MR program were instructed not to snack while those in the MRPS program were told to snack three times per day. SUBJECTS: A total of 100 participants were block-randomized, based on prestudy snacking status (high vs low), to receive a standard meal replacement program (MR) or MRPS. MEASUREMENTS: Weight, height, blood pressure, lipid fractions, glucose, and insulin were assessed at the baseline, 12-, and 24 weeks. RESULTS: Completers analysis at 24 weeks demonstrated a significant time effect (F(1,46)=44.6, P<0.001), indicating that all participants lost significant amounts of weight regardless of group assignment. An intention-to-treat model resulted in similar results. By week 24, the average weight loss across groups was 4.6 kg. There also were significant improvements across all groups among completers for systolic blood pressure (P=0.047), cholesterol (P=0.001), LDL (P=0.001), glucose (P=0.004), and insulin (P=0.001) at week 12, and glucose (P=0.001) and insulin at week 24 (P=0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that a participant's preferences for snacking did not affect their response to treatment. Snackers and nonsnackers responded equally well whether they received a standard meal replacement program or one augmented with snacks.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Consumption of sweet snacks and caries experience of primary school children.

With the aim of evaluating the relationship between consumption of sweet snacks (sugars) and caries prevalence, a secondary analysis was performed on data obtained in an epidemiological study of 5-, 8- and 11-year-old children, all participants of Regional Institutions for Youth Dentistry. The children's primary and permanent teeth were examined mainly by visual examination. Parents completed a questionnaire on the child's toothbrushing habits, use of fluoride tablets and fluoride toothpaste, consumption of sweet snacks, level of education of the mother as an indicator of the socio-economic status of the family and country of birth of the mother as an indicator of ethnicity. The various oral hygiene habits were combined into one variable. Firstly the crude relationship between consumption of sweet snacks and caries experience was evaluated, subsequently oral hygiene habits, socio-economic status and ethnicity were taken into account. Mean dmfs scores of 5- and 8-year-old children who consumed sweet snacks between meals more than 5 times a day (according to parents' reports) were significantly higher than mean dmfs scores of children with a lower reported sweet snack consumption. Multivariate analysis confirmed this result. Only 4.2% of the children were in the group with such a high sweet snack consumption. A number of parents probably underestimated the sweet snack consumption of their children. As the validity of the data on sweet snack consumption was questionable, the actual influence of this factor might be larger than the results of this study show.

Child↗

PubMed1994

Why do adolescents eat low nutrient snacks between meals? An analysis of behavioral determinants with the Fishbein and Ajzen model.

This article presents determinants of eating sweet and fat snacks between meals by adolescents (12-15 years). A preliminary qualitative study focused on eliciting students' interpretation of the self-rated terminology 'low nutrient sweet and fat snacks' and the development of a written questionnaire following the principles of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1980). In a quantitative study a questionnaire was administered to 560 students in the first and second grade of Dutch secondary education. In the data-analysis frequent and moderate users were compared. Frequent users had a more positive attitude towards the intake of sweet and fat snacks than moderate users. The intention to consume sweet snacks was more positive for frequent users. As opposed to frequent users, moderate users had a negative intention towards consuming fat snacks between meals. Moreover, moderate users experienced more social influence against the intake of both snacks than the frequent users. This study demonstrates the usefulness of the theory of reasoned action in relation to the self-rated consumption of sweet and fat snacks eaten between meals. In predicting intention to consume such snacks, attitude turned out to be more important than subjective norm. Finally, the correlation between actual eating behavior as reported by the students, and the behavioral intentions was relatively moderate which was probably caused by inconsistency between intention and behavior.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2003

Effects of voluntary resistance exercise and high-protein snack on bone mass, composition, and strength in rats given glucocorticoid injections.

We examined the effects of a voluntary resistance exercise (climbing) together with high-protein snacks (60% protein) on bone mass and strength in rats given glucocorticoid-injections (2 mg/kg/day) as a model of age-related osteopenia. Fifty-two male Sprague-Dawley rats, 8 weeks age, were assigned to exercise or sedentary groups. These groups were further divided into groups that received no snack, snack during activity or a snack during rest. All groups were meal-fed 7:30-8:30 h and 19:30-20:30 h and the snack was fed 23:30-0:30 h (active) or 11:30-12:30 h (resting). Energy and protein intake were approximately equal in all groups. The exercise groups were allowed to climb a wire-mesh tower cage (phi 20 cm x 200 cm) to drink water from a bottle set at the top. Weight gain during the 8-week experimental period was inhibited by a glucocorticoid-injection. Bone mass and strength were increased by climbing exercise with a high-protein snack, while no effect of snack nor any effect of snack timing was observed. Bone weight, calcium content and protein content were positively correlated to maximum load or structural stiffness. These results suggest that resistance exercise and high-protein supplementation may be a preventive therapy for osteoporosis associated with aging.

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Snacking, aversive imagery, and weight reduction.

This study was designed to explore the relationship between reduced snacking and weight loss and to evaluate the effectiveness of an aversive imagery procedure. Twenty-two participants completed an 11-wk. program designed to reduce the frequency of snacking. Reading an aversive "fat sheet" immediately prior to or after snacking, combined with a point system, was no more effective in reducing snacking than was the point system alone. Although incidence of snacking was significantly reduced, weight loss was greatest during the baseline period, when snacking was most frequent. The correlation between weekly weight loss and weekly number of snacks was nonsignificant. These results suggest that a single-minded focus on the reduction of snacking is unlikely to produce significant weight loss for most dieters.

Feeding Behavior↗