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PubMed2001

The adaptive model of thermal comfort and energy conservation in the built environment.

Current thermal comfort standards and the models underpinning them purport to be equally applicable across all types of building, ventilation, occupancy pattern and climate zone. A recent research project sponsored by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE, RP-884) critically evaluated these assumptions by statistically analysing a large database of research results in building comfort studies from all over the world (n=22,346). The results reported in this paper indicated a clear dependence of indoor comfort temperatures on outdoor air temperatures (instead of outdoor effective temperature ET* used in RP-884), especially in buildings that were free-running or naturally ventilated. These findings encourage significant revisions of ASHRAE's comfort standard in terms of climatically relevant prescriptions. The paper highlights the potential for reduced cooling energy requirements by designing for natural or hybrid ventilation in many moderate climate zones of the world.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2005

The link between obesity and the built environment. Evidence from an ecological analysis of obesity and vehicle miles of travel in California.

AIMS: Obesity and physical inactivity are known to be risk factors for many chronic diseases including hypertension, coronary artery disease, diabetes, and cancer. We sought to explore the association between an indicator of transportation data (Vehicle Miles of Travel, VMT) at the county level as it relates to obesity and physical inactivity in California. METHODS: Data from the California Health Interview Survey 2001 (CHIS 2001), the US 2000 Census, and the California Department of Transportation were merged to examine ecological correlations between vehicle miles of travel, population density, commute time, and county indicators of obesity and physical inactivity. Obesity was measured by body mass index (BMI). Physical inactivity was based on self-reported behaviors including walking, bicycling, and moderate to vigorous activity. The unit of analysis was the county. Thirty-three counties in California with population size greater than 100,000 persons per county were retained in the analyses. RESULTS: CHIS 2001 statewide obesity prevalence ranged from 11.2% to 28.5% by county. Physical inactivity ranged from 13.4% to 35.7%. Daily vehicle miles of travel ranged from 3.3 million to 183.8 million per county. By rank bivariate correlation, obesity and physical inactivity were significantly associated (p<0.01). Furthermore, by rank analysis of variance, the highest mean rank obesity was associated with the highest rank of VMT (p<0.01). Similar rank patterns were observed between obesity and physical inactivity and commute time. Associations between VMT and physical inactivity were examined but failed to reach statistical significance. CONCLUSION: This analysis adds to the growing evidence supporting the association between VMT (a measure of automobile transportation) and obesity. An urban design characterized by over dependence on motorized transportation may be related to adverse health effects.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity.

CONTEXT: Environmental factors are suggested to play a major role in physical activity (PA) and other obesity-related behaviors, yet there is no national research on the relationship between disparity in access to recreational facilities and additional impact on PA and overweight patterns in US adolescents. OBJECTIVE: In a nationally representative cohort, we sought to assess the geographic and social distribution of PA facilities and how disparity in access might underlie population-level PA and overweight patterns. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Residential locations of US adolescents in wave I (1994-1995) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 20745) were geocoded, and a 8.05-km buffer around each residence was drawn (N = 42857 census-block groups [19% of US block groups]). PA facilities, measured by national databases and satellite data, were linked with Geographic Information Systems technology to each respondent. Logistic-regression analyses tested the relationship of PA-related facilities with block-group socioeconomic status (SES) (at the community level) and the subsequent association of facilities with overweight and PA (at the individual level), controlling for population density. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Outcome measures were overweight (BMI > or = 95th percentile of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics growth curves) and achievement of > or = 5 bouts per week of moderate-vigorous PA. RESULTS: Higher-SES block groups had a significantly greater relative odds of having 1 or more facilities. Low-SES and high-minority block groups were less likely to have facilities. Relative to zero facilities per block group, an increasing number of facilities was associated with decreased overweight and increased relative odds of achieving > or = 5 bouts per week of moderate-vigorous PA. CONCLUSIONS: Lower-SES and high-minority block groups had reduced access to facilities, which in turn was associated with decreased PA and increased overweight. Inequality in availability of PA facilities may contribute to ethnic and SES disparities in PA and overweight patterns.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Social capital and the built environment: the importance of walkable neighborhoods.

OBJECTIVES: I sought to examine whether pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use neighborhoods encourage enhanced levels of social and community engagement (i.e., social capital). METHODS: The study investigated the relationship between neighborhood design and individual levels of social capital. Data were obtained from a household survey that measured the social capital of citizens living in neighborhoods that ranged from traditional, mixed-use, pedestrian-oriented designs to modern, car-dependent suburban subdivisions in Galway, Ireland. RESULTS: The analyses indicate that persons living in walkable, mixed-use neighborhoods have higher levels of social capital compared with those living in car-oriented suburbs. Respondents living in walkable neighborhoods were more likely to know their neighbors, participate politically, trust others, and be socially engaged. CONCLUSIONS: Walkable, mixed-use neighborhood designs can encourage the development of social capital.

Automobile Driving↗
PubMed2004

Cost analysis of the built environment: the case of bike and pedestrian trials in Lincoln, Neb.

We estimated the annual cost of bike and pedestrian trails in Lincoln, Neb, using construction and maintenance costs provided by the Department of Parks and Recreation of Nebraska. We obtained the number of users of 5 trails from a 1998 census report. The annual construction cost of each trail was calculated by using 3%, 5%, and 10% discount rates for a period of useful life of 10, 30, and 50 years. The average cost per mile and per user was calculated. Trail length averaged 3.6 miles (range = 1.6-4.6 miles). Annual cost in 2002 dollars ranged from 25,762 to 248,479 (mean = 124,927; median = 171,064). The cost per mile ranged from 5735 to 54,017 (mean = 35,355; median = 37,994). The annual cost per user was 235 (range = 83-592), whereas per capita annual medical cost of inactivity was 622. Construction of trails fits a wide range of budgets and may be a viable health amenity for most communities. To increase trail cost-effectiveness, efforts to decrease cost and increase the number of users should be considered.

Bicycling↗