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PubMed2001

Effects of bystander first aid, defibrillation and advanced life support on neurologic outcome and hospital costs in patients after ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of basic life support, time to first defibrillation and emergency medical service arrival time on neurologic outcome and expenses for hospital care in patients after cardiac arrest. SETTING: Large urban emergency medical services system and emergency department in a 2000-bed university hospital. DESIGN: Outcome and cost benefit analysis of patients admitted to the hospital after witnessed, out-of-hospital, ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest from October 1, 1991, until December 31, 1997. PATIENTS: Out of 1054 patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, 276 were eligible. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: The effects of basic and advanced life support measures on neurologic outcome and hospital expenses were evaluated. In contrast to intubation (odds ratio 1.08; 95% CI: 0.51-2.31; p=0.84), basic life support (odds ratio 0.44; 95% CI: 0.24-0.77; p=0.004) and time to first defibrillation (odds ratio 1.08; 95% CI: 1.03-1.13; p=0.001) were significantly correlated with good neurologic outcome. Among the patients who did not receive basic life support, the average cost per patient with good neurologic outcome significantly increased with the delay of the first defibrillation (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In contrast to intubation, bystander basic life support and time to first defibrillation were significantly associated with good neurologic outcome and resulted in fewer expenses spent on in-hospital efforts.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Comparison of termination-of-resuscitation guidelines for basic life support: defibrillator providers in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Termination of resuscitation in the field for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest can reduce unnecessary transport to hospital and associated road hazards and increase availability of emergency medical services (EMS) and emergency department resources for other patients. We compare the performance of 3 termination-of-resuscitation guidelines for basic life support-defibrillator (BLS) providers when applied to cardiac arrest patients in the Ontario Prehospital Advanced Life Support study. METHODS: This prospective cohort study involved all out-of-hospital cardiac arrest patients attended by BLS defibrillator providers in 21 Ontario urban or suburban communities. The data analyses were conducted secondarily on these prospectively collected data. Three termination-of-resuscitation guidelines (referred to as Marsden, Petrie, and Verbeek rules) were applied and contingency tables calculated to show the relationship between the rule and actual survival. RESULTS: From 1988 to 2003, 13,684 cardiac arrest patients were attended by BLS defibrillator providers. Six hundred thirty-six (4.7%) patients survived to hospital discharge. For the 3 termination-of-resuscitation rules, sensitivity was 99.8% (95% confidence interval [CI] 99.5% to 100.0%) (Petrie rules), 99.5% (95% CI 99.0% to 100.0%) (Verbeek rules), and 99.8% (95% CI 99.5% to 100.0%) (Marsden rules). Specificity was 9.9% (95% CI 9.4% to 10.4%) (Petrie rules), 52.9% (95% CI 52.1% to 53.8%) (Verbeek rules), and 19.4 % (95% CI 18.8% to 20.1%) (Marsden rules). Negative predictive value was 99.9% (95% CI 99.8% to 100.0%) (Petrie rules), 100.0% (95% CI 99.9% to 100.0%) (Verbeek rules), and 100.0% (95% CI 99.9% to 100.0%) (Marsden rules). These rules would have resulted in field termination of resuscitation in 9.4% (Petrie rules), 50.5% (Verbeek rules), and 18.5 % (Marsden rules) of cases. Termination of resuscitation was recommended for 1 patient (Petrie rules), 3 patients (Verbeek rules), and 1 patient (Marsden rules), who survived. CONCLUSION: We found all 3 termination-of-resuscitation rules to have high sensitivity and negative predictive value. However, the specificity and transport rates varied greatly. The results of this study will be useful for EMS providers considering adoption of termination of resuscitation in BLS defibrillator systems for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Resuscitation of cardiac arrest victims by advanced life support units in Monroe County, New York.

Four hundred sixty-three cases of cardiac arrest treated in the pre-hospital setting by advanced life support (ALS) or paramedic units in Monroe County, New York, were evaluated using Eisenberg's criteria, which define factors known to be critical for successful resuscitation. Forty-eight patients met the criteria of witnessed collapse and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) within four minutes and ALS within ten minutes, with the initial rhythm of ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia. Of these, 16 (33%) patients were discharged from the hospital. This compares to 12 of 415 (3%) patients discharged who did not meet the criteria. Of the 171 patients who suffered witnessed arrests of cardiac origin, 20 survived to be discharged. This represents a successful resuscitation rate of 12%. These percentages are within the range noted for other ALS services in the United States.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

An observational study of bispectral index monitoring for out of hospital cardiac arrest.

Cerebral resuscitation is the most important goal of advanced life support. Currently, there are no objective monitoring methods available to gauge the effectiveness of advanced life support on cerebral resuscitation. We assessed the utility of bispectral index (BIS) monitoring during cardiopulmonary resuscitation as a marker of cerebral resuscitation. Twenty one patients with out of hospital cardiac arrest had a BIS monitor applied during the resuscitation, in addition to standard advanced life support. The BIS monitor was also applied to a cadaver to assess the role of artefact. Illustrative data are presented, outlining the process of evaluation undertaken. A major component of the BIS tracing during external chest compressions appears to be due to movement artefact. Our pilot data indicate that with current technology, BIS monitoring is not a clinically reliable marker of the efficacy of external chest compressions.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Recall after cardiac arrest scenario testing.

The Resuscitation Council (UK) Advanced Life Support (ALS) Course is a multidisciplinary training course which teaches participants how to manage the resuscitation of a patient at risk of or in cardiac arrest. To reduce variability in assessments, four standardised patient scenarios have been developed with common performance criteria. The aim of the study was to establish how much candidates remembered about their test in order to assess the potential for collusion. Eighty-nine candidates were asked immediately after testing what they remembered about their ALS scenario. Recall of the underlying problem with the simulated patient was good (85 [96%]). Forty-two [47%] correctly remembered the initial cardiac arrest rhythm and 55 [61%] the subsequent cardiac arrest rhythm. Fifty-nine [60%] candidates passed the assessment. Candidates who passed the assessment were significantly more likely to correctly recall the initial and subsequent cardiac arrest rhythms than those who did not. However, even in this group, the overall recall of all elements of the scenario was correct in only 49% of instances. This study demonstrated that immediately after testing candidates had good recall of the initial clinical scenario with which they were presented, but poor recall of cardiac arrest rhythms during the simulated resuscitation attempt. These findings provide some reassurance that the likelihood of successful collusion improving subsequent candidates performance is likely to be small as recall of the scenario progression is limited.

Advanced Cardiac Life Support↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[European Resuscitation Council guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation in 2005].

ADULT BASIC LIFE SUPPORT: The ratio of compressions to ventilations is 30:2 for all adult victims of cardiac arrest. AUTOMATED EXTERNAL DEFIBRILLATION: A single defibrillatory shock is delivered, immediately followed by two minutes of uninterrupted CPR. ADULT ADVANCED LIFE SUPPORT: In out-of-hospital cardiac arrest attended, but unwitnessed, by healthcare professionals equipped with manual defibrillators, give CPR for 2 minutes before defibrillation. The recommended initial energy for biphasic defibrillators is 150-200 J, for second and subsequent shocks is 150-360 J. The recommended energy when using a monophasic defibrillator is 360 J for both the initial and subsequent shocks. Rhythm checks must be brief, and pulse cheks undertaken only if an organised rhythm is observed. Adrenaline is given 1 mg i.v. as soon as intravenous access is obtained, and repeated every 3-5 min thereafter until return of spontaneous circulation is achieved. Consider thrombolytic therapy when cardiac arrest is thought to be due to proven or suspected pulmonary embolus. Unconscious adult patinets, with spontaneous circulation, after out-of-hospital VF cardiac arrest should be cooled to 32-34 degrees C for 12-24 hours. PAEDIATRIC BASIC LIFE SUPPORT: Lay rescuers or lone rescuers witnessing paediatric cardiac arrest will start with 5 rescue breaths and continue with the 30:2 ratio as thaught in adult BLS. Two or more rescuers with a duty to respond will use the 15:2 ration in a child up to the onset of puberty. PAEDIATRIC ADVANCED LIFE SUPPORT: When using a manual defibrillator, a dose of 4 J/kg (biphasic or monophasic waveform) should be used for the first and subsequent shocks. Adrenaline iv. or i.o. should be given at the dose of 10 microg/kg (0.01 mg/kg) and repeated every 3-5 minutes. NEONATAL LIFE SUPPORT: Protect the newborn from heat loss. Standard resuscitation in delivery room should be made with 100% oxygen. Suctioning meconium from the baby's nose and mouth before delivery of the baby's chest (intrapartum suctioning) is not useful and no longer recommended.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Sodium bicarbonate may improve outcome in dogs with brief or prolonged cardiac arrest.

OBJECTIVE: Despite the absence of outcome evaluation, the use of sodium bicarbonate in cardiac arrest has declined based on advanced cardiac life-support guidelines. The effects of bicarbonate therapy on outcome in a canine model of ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest of brief (5-min) and prolonged (15-min) duration were examined. DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, controlled trial. SETTING: Experimental animal laboratory in a university medical center. SUBJECTS: Thirty-two adult dogs, weighing 10 to 17 kg. INTERVENTIONS: The animals were prepared with ketamine, nitrous oxide/oxygen, halothane, and pancuronium. Ventricular fibrillation was then electrically induced and maintained in arrest for 5 mins (n = 12) or 15 mins (n = 20). Canine advanced cardiac life-support protocols were instituted, including defibrillation, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and the administration of epinephrine (0.1 mg/kg), atropine, and lidocaine. The bicarbonate group received 1 mmol/kg of sodium bicarbonate initially, and base deficit was corrected to -5 mmol/L with additional bicarbonate, whereas acidemia was untreated in the control group. Cardiopulmonary values were recorded at intervals between 5 mins and 24 hrs, and the neurologic deficit score was determined at 24 hrs after CPR. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The treatment group received an additional 2 to 3 mmol/kg of bicarbonate in the early postresuscitation phase. Compared with controls, the bicarbonate group demonstrated equivalent (with brief arrest) or improved (with prolonged arrest) return of spontaneous circulation and survival to 24 hrs, with lessened neurologic deficit. The acidosis of arrest was decreased in the prolonged arrest group without hypercarbia. Improved coronary and systemic perfusion pressures were noted in the bicarbonate group with prolonged arrest, and the epinephrine requirement for return of spontaneous circulation was decreased. CONCLUSIONS: The empirical administration of bicarbonate improves the survival rate and neurologic outcome in a canine model of cardiac arrest.

Acidosis↗
PubMed2001

Variability in the assessment of advanced life support skills.

The number of short 'life support' and emergency care courses available are increasing. Variability in examiner assessments has been reported previously in more traditional types of examinations but there is little data on the reliability of the assessments used on these newer courses. This study evaluated the reliability and consistency of instructor marking for the Resuscitation Council UK Advanced Life Support Course. Twenty five instructors from 15 centres throughout the UK were shown four staged video recorded defibrillation tests (one repeated) and three cardiac arrest simulation tests in order to assess inter-observer and intra-observer variability. These tests form part of the final assessment of competence on an Advanced Life Support course. Significant levels of variability were demonstrated between instructors with poor levels of agreement of 52-80% for defibrillation tests and 52-100% for cardiac arrest simulation tests. There was evidence of differences in the observation/recognition of errors and rating tendencies of instructors. Four instructors made a different pass/fail decision when shown defibrillation test 2 for a second time leading to only moderate levels of intra-observer agreement (kappa=0.43). In conclusion there is significant variability between instructors in the assessment of advanced life support skills, which may undermine the present assessment mechanisms for the advanced life support course. Validation of the assessment tools for the rapidly growing number of life support courses is required with urgent steps to improve reliability where required.

Advanced Cardiac Life Support↗
PubMed2002

Advanced life support drugs: do they really work?

Basic life support and rapid defibrillation for ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia are the only two interventions that have been shown unequivocally to improve survival after cardiac arrest. Several drugs are advocated to treat cardiac arrest, but despite very encouraging animal data, no drug has been reliably proven to increase survival to hospital discharge after cardiac arrest. This review focuses on recent experimental and clinical data concerning the use of vasopressin, amiodarone, magnesium, and fibrinolytics during advanced life support (ALS). Animal data indicate that, in comparison with epinephrine (adrenaline), vasopressin produces better vital organ blood flow during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). These apparent advantages have yet to be converted into improved survival in large-scale trials of cardiac arrest in humans. Data from two prospective, randomized trials suggest that amiodarone may improve short-term survival after out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest. On the basis of anecdotal data, magnesium is recommended therapy for torsades de pointes and for shock-resistant ventricular fibrillation associated with hypomagnesemia. In the past, CPR has been a contraindication to giving fibrinolytics, but several studies have demonstrated the relative safety of fibrinolysis during and after CPR. Fibrinolytics are likely to be beneficial when cardiac arrest is associated with plaque rupture and fresh coronary thrombus or massive pulmonary embolism. Fibrinolysis may also improve cerebral microcirculatory perfusion once a spontaneous circulation has been restored. A planned, prospective, randomized trial may help to define the role of fibrinolysis during out-of-hospital CPR.

Advanced Cardiac Life Support↗